Introduction
Overview
As one of the wisdom books, Ecclesiastes should be interpreted in the context of OT “wisdom.” The book of Proverbs defines the normal function of wisdom—how to live wisely in the world. According to Proverbs the world is ordered and rational: the righteous are blessed, and the wicked are cursed; the diligent prosper, and the lazy are poor. Job, however, shatters the notion that this logical retribution-based world is universal, and Ecclesiastes is similar, underscoring the exceptions to the norms of Proverbs. Yet the Teacher in Ecclesiastes moves beyond Job in probing the philosophical implications of the incongruities that he sees in life, for the Teacher is intellectually and spiritually rattled by things he sees in life that don’t match up to the ordered and logical world of Proverbs. He realizes that while the rational, ordered approach to life (“wisdom”) is good and certainly to be preferred over folly and stupidity, nonetheless the “wisdom” approach does not give him a framework with which to grasp the meaning of life.
Ecclesiastes is a story about the Teacher’s intellectual search for meaning in life using the tools of wisdom (observation, reflection, correlation). Unfortunately, wisdom does not give him any satisfactory answers for ultimate meaning. It merely provides good intellectual tools with which to see the problems and inconsistencies in life. The Teacher wants to understand life and be able to come up with an overarching framework from which he can understand all of life, even the incongruities. In this he fails, and this is one of the main subpoints of the book (as it was for Job).
The final theological conclusion to Ecclesiastes, however, and the main point of the book, is that one should “fear God and keep his commands, because this is for all humanity” (12:13). Wisdom is a good approach to life, and it is infinitely better than folly, but one cannot find meaning apart from acknowledging God as the ultimate Creator (12:1). In addition, humankind cannot understand and comprehend everything, nor can they explain all observed phenomena through simple cause-and-effect analysis. For this they need to believe and trust in God. Just as Proverbs opens with this truth (Pr 1:7), so Ecclesiastes ends with the same truth, establishing that rational thought (traditional wisdom) and vibrant faith in God must go hand in hand for one to be truly wise. In the meantime, Ecclesiastes suggests, we should view life not as a mystery to be solved and understood but rather as a gift to be enjoyed.
Title, Authorship, and Date
The familiar English title of the book, Ecclesiastes, is a Greek word meaning “assembly member, assembler,” which simply translates its Hebrew title, Qoheleth, the author’s preferred self-designation (see the CSB footnote for 1:1). The word “Qoheleth,” in turn, is a transliterated participle that is rendered “Teacher.” The related Hebrew verb is used in 1 Kg 8:1–2 when Solomon assembles (qahal) the Israelite leaders prior to the temple dedication. “Qoheleth” is probably a professional title, literally the “assembler” of the people for teaching. The word could also identify the author as the “assembler” of wise sayings (cf. 12:9–10). Although the book is introduced as the “words of the Teacher” (1:1), other biblical texts are similarly introduced as containing the words of a specific individual without necessarily claiming thereby that this person wrote the present canonical book (e.g., Pr 30:1; 31:1; Jr 1:1; Am 1:1). The third-person references to the Teacher also could point to the work of an editor.
Despite the fact that the book never mentions King Solomon by name, he has traditionally been viewed as the author. There are three primary reasons for this ascription: (1) the author is described in 1:1 as “son of David, king in Jerusalem,” although the word “son” could designate any royal descendant. When this is combined with 1:12, which describes him further as “king over Israel in Jerusalem,” only Solomon could be intended if “Israel” refers to the united monarchy. (2) The speaker’s first-person claims about his personal achievements and acquisitions correspond closely to the narrative descriptions of Solomon’s reign in 1 Kings. (Compare, for example, Ec 1:16 and 2:4–10 with 1 Kg 3:12; 4:29–34; 5:13–18; 7:1–8; 9:17–19; 10:14–29; also Ec 7:20 with 1 Kg 8:46 and Ec 7:28 with 1 Kg 11:1–3.) (3) The claims of 1 Kg 4:29–34 that Solomon not only possessed unsurpassed wisdom but also authored numerous proverbs make him a plausible author who not only could test life’s offerings to the full but also commend his discoveries to his people in a literary form. The cumulative effect of this textual support is sufficiently weighty that even most scholars who reject Solomonic authorship nevertheless assume that a later author has, as it were, slipped into the famed king’s sandals in order to view the rich opportunities and cruel realities of life through his eyes. For them Solomon is simply the pseudonymous author of or the fictive voice in the book.
Those questioning the traditional authorship note specific elements of the book’s language, content, and concepts that they view either as incompatible with Solomonic authorship or, more generally, with a date of composition early in the Israelite monarchy (i.e., tenth century BC). Despite the traditional association of Solomon with both Proverbs and Ecclesiastes, there are striking differences between the Hebrew of Proverbs and that of Ecclesiastes, the latter containing numerous grammatical forms and specific words that occur elsewhere only in exilic or postexilic OT books or in Aramaic or postbiblical (Mishnaic) Hebrew.
In the objections to Solomonic authorship based on the book’s content, at least four points are raised. (1) The fact that Solomon is never mentioned by name in the book, the speaker instead being referred to (1:1–2; 7:27; 12:8–10) or referring to himself (1:12) as “the Teacher,” is taken as indicating that the author is an anonymous sage. (2) A king like Solomon would not repeatedly criticize the abuses of royal power (e.g., 5:8–9; 8:9–11). (3) It is unlikely that the book’s skepticism toward the benefits of wisdom and righteousness could stem from the same author as the optimistic or positivistic claims of Proverbs. (4) The book appears to allude to or depend on specific events and socioeconomic conditions from the Persian period.
An additional point is raised based on the book’s concepts: some of the emphases and specific expressions of Ecclesiastes are similar to those found in Greek philosophy, especially Stoicism and Epicureanism.
Some scholars still support a Solomonic origin for the book, which would put its composition in the mid-tenth century BC. According to an Aramaic translation of the book, Solomon authored the book during a time of religious apostasy, which occurred late in his life. The book itself, however, does not support such a claim (cf. 12:9–10) or suggest a specific period of his life. Those rejecting the traditional author, including many conservative scholars, tend to date the book no earlier than the late postexilic period, with an increasing number supporting a third-century-BC date.
Although a detailed defense of Solomonic authorship in response to the preceding objections cannot be offered here, the following points may be noted. The language argument certainly is weightier than the content argument. Given the relative paucity of surviving Hebrew and Aramaic texts from the preexilic and exilic periods, any effort to use specific linguistic features to set an absolute date for any biblical composition is fraught with difficulties, and the editorial updating of a wisdom book such as Ecclesiastes is a reasonable explanation for the existence of “late” features. With regard to the content argument, the author may call himself “the Teacher” to emphasize the specific hat he is donning in this book in addressing a broad range of topics and a broad audience, drawing on common wisdom themes and sources. And one can identify at least as many parallel concepts in ancient Mesopotamian or Egyptian texts as in Greek compositions. In the following interpretive comments, a Solomonic perspective will be assumed throughout, based on our conclusions regarding the possibility but not the necessity of a Solomonic origin for the book’s teachings. Accordingly, we will avoid tying this perspective too tightly to any concrete historical setting, either monarchic or postexilic.
Literary Features
Although the question of authorship is not insignificant, issues related to the compositional unity, rhetoric, genre, structure, and overall purpose of Ecclesiastes have a much greater impact on its interpretation. Seemingly contradictory statements have led interpreters to identify multiple voices within the book. Compare, for example, 5:10 (“The one who loves silver is never satisfied with silver”) with 10:19 (“money is the answer for everything”) or 1:18 (“with much wisdom is much sorrow; as knowledge increases, grief increases”) with 7:11 (“Wisdom is as good as an inheritance and an advantage to those who see the sun”). One explanation is that a skeptical speaker verging on heresy has been (later) countered editorially by the addition of an orthodox perspective. It is preferable, however, to view this repeated juxtaposition of divergent, even opposing, proverbs as the intentional rhetorical strategy of the author, who seeks as sage to examine human pursuits from all sides in order to assess realistically both their benefits and limitations and advocate a balanced perspective.
Since 12:1–7 offers the book’s final and most dramatic illustration of the brevity of life, followed by verse 8, which repeats the theme verse from 1:2 and thus forms with it a literary bracket, several commentators have identified a distinct prologue in 1:1–11 or 1:3–11 and an epilogue in 12:8–14 or 12:9–14. They believe this literary bracket has been added by a later narrator/editor who introduces, incorporates, and then evaluates the Teacher’s reflections in 1:12–12:7 (1:1 and 12:9–12 in particular are editorial in nature and similar to ancient Near Eastern colophons). Many of the key words in 12:8–14 occur repeatedly throughout the book, though sometimes with different nuances. This fact could support either a common author or an editor’s intentional imitation. The more significant consideration is how one assesses this proposed editor’s attitude toward the Teacher’s wisdom. Some understand the concluding verses, 12:13–14, as a pious postscript that serves to reject all that precedes it within the book. But even if this concluding section stems from a second author, there is no compelling reason to interpret it as a critique rather than an explanation of the book’s purpose and guide to understanding it.
Striking similarities and differences between Ecclesiastes and a wide range of biblical and ancient Near Eastern texts have complicated efforts to identify its genre, since it is arguably unique. The book begins with a lengthy first-person section (1:12–2:26, although first-person statements continue through chap. 10), but the lessons drawn from these experiences are quite unlike those of other royal autobiographical texts. Ecclesiastes lacks the sustained wrestling with divine injustice that marks Job and a number of Mesopotamian texts. The book itself suggests that its teachings result from an intentional and wide-ranging examination of all that is done under the sun, not simply for self-discovery but also for the benefit of others (compare 1:13 and 2:3 with 12:9–10).
Structure and Theological Themes
Many interpreters despair of finding any structural framework or logical development within the central section of the book, chapters 3–11. They dismiss any attempt as a creative imposition on a loose collection of miscellaneous topics and sayings. This commentary, however, will seek to demonstrate that the sage who authored this book sought not only to find order in his world but also to order his discoveries. In light of his initial thesis stated in 1:2 that everything is utter “futility” (Hb hebel; see the article “Everything Is Futile!”), he seeks to determine what nevertheless has lasting value (1:3) in such a world. To this end, he proceeds to analyze and assess the foundational activities and dimensions of life under the sun: human achievements and wisdom (1:12–2:26), time and eternity (3:1–22), social relationships (4:1–16, followed by an admonitory interlude in 5:1–9), and wealth (5:10–6:9). As a result of his investigation, he comes to understand that seemingly bad days can bring about good (6:10–7:14), that righteousness and wisdom offer only limited protection in this world (7:15–29), that one must submit to the government despite injustice (8:1–17), that in the light of death one must make full use of one’s opportunities (9:1–10), and that one should embrace wisdom and avoid folly (9:11–10:20). Despite having emphasized the elusive nature and ephemeral value of many of our most prized possessions and achievements, the author concludes by affirming the value of vigorous and joyful engagement in life, tempered by reverence for God (11:1–12:7), until death overtakes us. [Everything Is Futile!]
The book of Ecclesiastes draws on Gn 1–3 repeatedly; it refers to God as the “Creator” (12:1), who created humans from the dust of the ground and imparted the “spirit” to them (3:20–21; 12:7) and who makes “everything appropriate in its time” (3:11). In a fallen world, though, human efforts are marked by wearisome “labor” or “work” and produce no lasting results. In Ecclesiastes, God’s most frequent activity is “giving” (used thirteen times of God). He gives both toil (1:13; 2:26; 3:10) and enjoyment in life (2:24, 26; 3:13; 5:18), wisdom and knowledge (2:26; cf. 12:11), wealth and honor (5:19; 6:2), and the numbered days of one’s life (5:18; 8:15; 9:9). God remains sovereign (6:10; 9:1), and his work incomprehensible (3:11; 7:14; 8:17; 11:5). Ultimately every person will encounter him as Judge (3:15; 5:6; 7:16–17; 11:9; 12:14), though the present delay in divine justice can be quite troubling (3:16–17; 8:12–13) and uncertainty regarding the future can lead to debilitating doubt and even despair (3:22; 6:12; 7:14; 8:7; 9:1, 12; 10:14).
Though God’s work is inscrutable, he has “put eternity” within the human heart (3:11), and the appropriate human response is to “be in awe” of him (3:14; cf. 5:7). This exhortation is balanced by Ecclesiastes’s dominant encouragement to find joy in the everyday experiences of life (2:24–25; 3:12–13; 5:19–20; 8:15; 9:7–8; 11:8–10), which recurs almost like a refrain and progresses in the course of the book from an assertion to a command. Without these twin pursuits, life is reduced to futility (i.e., “pursuit of the wind,” 1:14, 17; 2:11, 17, 26; 4:4, 6; 5:16; 6:9), without rest (2:23; 4:6; 5:12; 8:16), satisfaction (4:8; 5:10; 6:3, 7, 9), or meaning (2:17–23; 4:8). Despite these difficulties, Ecclesiastes repeatedly emphasizes that life is not without “gain.” Wisdom, wealth, and wife, though temporary, should be embraced and enjoyed as divine gifts. The book encourages us therefore to accept our lot (esp. 5:18–19; 9:9), even though the present is difficult and the future is veiled (2:12, 18; 6:12; 7:14; 9:3; 10:14; 12:7).
Outline
1. Introductory Remarks (1:1–11)
A. Title (1:1)
B. Theme Verse: Everything Is Ephemeral (1:2)
C. Goal of the Investigation (1:3–11)
2. Examining Everything under the Sun (1:12–6:9)
A. Human Achievements and Wisdom (1:12–2:26)
B. Time and Eternity (3:1–22)
C. Social Relationships (4:1–16)
D. Warnings against Wrong Attitudes toward God and Government (5:1–9)
E. Wealth (5:10–6:9)
3. Positive Attitudes in the Light of Injustice and Uncertainty (6:10–10:20)
A. Recognize That Bad Days Can Bring About Good (6:10–7:14)
B. Recognize That Righteousness and Wisdom Offer Only Limited Protection (7:15–29)
C. Recognize That One Must Submit to the Government despite Injustice (8:1–17)
D. Recognize That, in the Light of Death, One Must Redeem the Time (9:1–10)
E. One Should Embrace Wisdom and Avoid Folly (9:11–10:20)
4. Final Charge (11:1–12:7)
A. Be Bold (11:1–6)
B. Be Joyful (11:7–10)
C. Be Reverent (12:1–7)
5. Concluding Explanatory Remarks (12:8–14)
A. Theme Verse: Everything Is Ephemeral (12:8)
B. Hermeneutical Reflections (12:9–14)