11 And the Lord spoke to Moses and Aaron, saying to them, 2 “Speak to the people of Israel, saying, These are the living things that you may eat among all the animals that are on the earth. 3 Whatever parts the hoof and is cloven-footed and chews the cud, among the animals, you may eat. 4 Nevertheless, among those that chew the cud or part the hoof, you shall not eat these: The camel, because it chews the cud but does not part the hoof, is unclean to you. 5 And the rock badger, because it chews the cud but does not part the hoof, is unclean to you. 6 And the hare, because it chews the cud but does not part the hoof, is unclean to you. 7 And the pig, because it parts the hoof and is cloven-footed but does not chew the cud, is unclean to you. 8 You shall not eat any of their flesh, and you shall not touch their carcasses; they are unclean to you.
9 “These you may eat, of all that are in the waters. Everything in the waters that has fins and scales, whether in the seas or in the rivers, you may eat. 10 But anything in the seas or the rivers that does not have fins and scales, of the swarming creatures in the waters and of the living creatures that are in the waters, is detestable to you. 11 You shall regard them as detestable; you shall not eat any of their flesh, and you shall detest their carcasses. 12 Everything in the waters that does not have fins and scales is detestable to you.
13 “And these you shall detest among the birds;1 they shall not be eaten; they are detestable: the eagle,2 the bearded vulture, the black vulture, 14 the kite, the falcon of any kind, 15 every raven of any kind, 16 the ostrich, the nighthawk, the sea gull, the hawk of any kind, 17 the little owl, the cormorant, the short-eared owl, 18 the barn owl, the tawny owl, the carrion vulture, 19 the stork, the heron of any kind, the hoopoe, and the bat.
20 “All winged insects that go on all fours are detestable to you. 21 Yet among the winged insects that go on all fours you may eat those that have jointed legs above their feet, with which to hop on the ground. 22 Of them you may eat: the locust of any kind, the bald locust of any kind, the cricket of any kind, and the grasshopper of any kind. 23 But all other winged insects that have four feet are detestable to you.
24 “And by these you shall become unclean. Whoever touches their carcass shall be unclean until the evening, 25 and whoever carries any part of their carcass shall wash his clothes and be unclean until the evening. 26 Every animal that parts the hoof but is not cloven-footed or does not chew the cud is unclean to you. Everyone who touches them shall be unclean. 27 And all that walk on their paws, among the animals that go on all fours, are unclean to you. Whoever touches their carcass shall be unclean until the evening, 28 and he who carries their carcass shall wash his clothes and be unclean until the evening; they are unclean to you.
29 “And these are unclean to you among the swarming things that swarm on the ground: the mole rat, the mouse, the great lizard of any kind, 30 the gecko, the monitor lizard, the lizard, the sand lizard, and the chameleon. 31 These are unclean to you among all that swarm. Whoever touches them when they are dead shall be unclean until the evening. 32 And anything on which any of them falls when they are dead shall be unclean, whether it is an article of wood or a garment or a skin or a sack, any article that is used for any purpose. It must be put into water, and it shall be unclean until the evening; then it shall be clean. 33 And if any of them falls into any earthenware vessel, all that is in it shall be unclean, and you shall break it. 34 Any food in it that could be eaten, on which water comes, shall be unclean. And all drink that could be drunk from every such vessel shall be unclean. 35 And everything on which any part of their carcass falls shall be unclean. Whether oven or stove, it shall be broken in pieces. They are unclean and shall remain unclean for you. 36 Nevertheless, a spring or a cistern holding water shall be clean, but whoever touches a carcass in them shall be unclean. 37 And if any part of their carcass falls upon any seed grain that is to be sown, it is clean, 38 but if water is put on the seed and any part of their carcass falls on it, it is unclean to you.
39 “And if any animal which you may eat dies, whoever touches its carcass shall be unclean until the evening, 40 and whoever eats of its carcass shall wash his clothes and be unclean until the evening. And whoever carries the carcass shall wash his clothes and be unclean until the evening.
41 “Every swarming thing that swarms on the ground is detestable; it shall not be eaten. 42 Whatever goes on its belly, and whatever goes on all fours, or whatever has many feet, any swarming thing that swarms on the ground, you shall not eat, for they are detestable. 43 You shall not make yourselves detestable with any swarming thing that swarms, and you shall not defile yourselves with them, and become unclean through them. 44 For I am the Lord your God. Consecrate yourselves therefore, and be holy, for I am holy. You shall not defile yourselves with any swarming thing that crawls on the ground. 45 For I am the Lord who brought you up out of the land of Egypt to be your God. You shall therefore be holy, for I am holy.”
46 This is the law about beast and bird and every living creature that moves through the waters and every creature that swarms on the ground, 47 to make a distinction between the unclean and the clean and between the living creature that may be eaten and the living creature that may not be eaten.
Section Overview
The sacrilege of Aaron’s sons culminates in a fearful display of God’s judgment. Because the Lord dwells among his people, it is critical that they learn to guard against violating his holiness. The priesthood is entrusted with teaching Israel to make distinctions in their daily lives “between the holy and the common, and between the unclean and the clean” (10:10–11). The first topic of Israel’s discipleship is how to eat in holiness by distinguishing between clean and unclean animals. At the conclusion of this teaching the charge is given to the people themselves: “Make a distinction between the unclean and the clean and between the living creature that may be eaten and the living creature that may not be eaten” (11:47). Israelites are invited to participate in their sanctification and to pursue the Lord’s intentions for covenant fellowship.
Eating receives a lot of attention in Leviticus. The book begins with the offerings that grace the Lord’s table (chs. 1–5), moves to the holy portions allotted to priests and their families (chs. 6–7), and then continues with the meat fit for Israel’s table (ch. 11). The second half of the book, on holy living, takes up the theme of covenant eating again: refraining from blood (ch. 17), circumstances in which priests must refrain from holy portions, and, finally, refraining from offering blemished sacrifices (ch. 22), coming back full circle to the table of the Lord. Eating expresses relationship with the Lord and shapes the identity of those who feast with him (cf. Rev. 3:20).
The chapter is shaped to reflect the creation account of Genesis 1:20–25. Animals are presented according to their habitats: land (Lev. 11:2–8, 29–30, 41–42), water (vv. 9–12), and sky (vv. 13–23). Since the Lord now indwells creation in the midst of his people, creatures in each of these realms are related to his holiness and deemed clean or unclean. The Lord’s instructions thus reach beyond a mere patterning after creation to address the human vocation of stewarding creation. As Adam named the animals because he understood something essential about their nature (Gen. 2:19–20), Israel discerns whether those animals may be brought to table fellowship. The Lord’s table is connected to his people’s: offerings made at the altar put meat on the menu for Israelites (Lev. 17:8–9).121 In light of God’s revealed will the people must discern whether the flesh of a living being facilitates communion with the Lord or draws them apart. A meal eaten in fellowship with family and community strengthens spiritual bonds and identity as a people while at the same time serving to distinguish Israelites from those outside the covenant community.
The Lord draws upon metaphors from Israel’s life experience to communicate his redemptive purposes. Membership in the household of God is illustrated through the metaphor of domesticated animals: “You are my sheep, human sheep of my pasture, and I am your God, declares the Lord God” (Ezek. 34:31; cf. Pss. 95:7; 100:1–5). This analogy is foundational for Israelites’ understanding of themselves, their community, and the world around them. A domesticated, sacrifice-able animal corresponds to an individual, which is precisely what makes it “an apt gift and even a symbolic counterpart for the worshiper, who sacrifices a creature analogous to him/herself to God.”122 On the level of society, ranking within the community is reflected in the sacrifices of the sin offering brought according to the animal hierarchy of a mixed flock: the high priest offers a bull, a tribal leader a male goat, and an ordinary citizen a female goat or lamb (ch. 4). As Leviticus progressively develops a vision of holiness that subsumes all of life, another layer is added to the analogy in this chapter relating to divisions in the world: Israel is as clean animals and the nations are as unclean.123 The implication is that dietary laws serve as “a sign of Israel’s identity and calling, a wall of separation between Israel and the nations. Israel had been chosen of God and cleansed, and so possessed, with his dwelling in their midst, fullness of life; the Gentiles were still exiled from the divine Presence, unclean and in the realm of death.”124
A variety of approaches have sought to explain the dietary laws, many that can be traced back to antiquity. In brief the most common include the following:125
(1) Hygienic: unclean animals carry diseases that pose health concerns; for example, pigs could carry trichinosis or shellfish could be contaminated. This view reflects mainly modern health concerns and has not found strong support among interpreters who point out the ritual (not medical) interest of these laws. If hygiene was of primary concern, it is doubtful that Jesus would have abolished the distinctions of clean and unclean (Mark 7:19).
(2) Creational order: clean animals display characteristics compatible with their creational realms, whereas unclean animals do not fit the pattern; for example, aquatic animals that do not swim but instead scuttle along the bottom are unclean.126 Much remains unaccounted for, such as why anomalous animals like the donkey are prized for labor but not for lunch.
(3) Ethical: by avoiding certain animals Israel learned the sanctity of life and how to restrain their appetite.127 This reading notes a progression from humanity’s original diet (Gen. 1:29) to the concession of meat (Gen. 9:3–4). The dietary laws restrict Israel’s fare further to only clean animals. But if restraint is the goal, is this achieved simply by limiting Israel’s choices of what it can eat (but putting no limits on how much it can eat)?
(4) Arbitrary: there is no discernible rationale to the division of clean and unclean, but these laws nevertheless teach the valuable lesson of obedience.128 Without question obedience is at the heart of relationship with the Lord. Yet the dietary laws are in close conversation with God’s work in creation and redemption, both thematically and by repeated phrases, thus suggesting intentional theological reflection in how they are conceived.
While we may not understand fully the rationale behind the dietary laws, staying close to the biblical text allows us to find their ultimate purpose. The theological reason for making distinctions between clean and unclean is for Israel to be holy as the Lord is holy so it may remain in life-giving fellowship with him (Lev. 11:44–45). Therefore it is best to approach these laws as the original hearers did, making redemptive-theological connections. The dietary laws are for Israel’s discipleship and training in godliness. In their every meal Israelites consecrated themselves to the Lord and separated themselves from the nations (20:24–26). With each act of obedience they set themselves apart as the Lord’s holy people, envisioning the world as a sanctuary with themselves as the new humanity within it.
Section Outline
III. Ritual Impurity (11:1–15:33)
A. Clean and Unclean Animals (11:1–47)
2. Clean and Unclean Animals (11:2b–23)
a. Land Animals (11:2b–8)
b. Aquatic Animals (11:9–12)
c. Flying Animals (11:13–19)
d. Flying Insects (11:20–23)
3. Carcass Impurity (11:24–40)
4. Swarming Creatures (11:41–45)
5. Summary (11:46–47)
Response
The dietary laws given to Israel prepare us for the invitation to come to that table where we find our true identity in the consummate meal prepared by the Lord. We eat the bread and drink the wine to commemorate Christ’s death and to enact bodily our belief that we have been redeemed by the broken body and shed blood of our Savior, Jesus Christ. Through a sacred covenant meal we proclaim his coming and the hope of eternal life in him (John 6:50–55).
Jesus uses meals, a deeply embedded symbol in Israel’s cultural life, to draw people to himself. He feasts with those on the margins, eating with sinners and welcoming them into the kingdom of God by welcoming them first to the table (Mark 2:15–17). He uses the Passover meal to explain his sacrificial death to his disciples, showing them that it is soon coming to fulfillment in himself as he will inaugurate the new covenant (Matt. 26:26–29). Those who eat at table with him feast in fulfillment of prophetic anticipations of commensality with God (Isa. 25:6–9). After his resurrection Jesus chooses to reveal his identity through a meal: “When he was at table with them, he took the bread and blessed and broke it and gave it to them. And their eyes were opened, and they recognized him” (Luke 24:30–31). Meals define identity. As the banquet host, the Lord invites us to partake in the meal of his flesh and blood that defines our belonging to his body.
In the new covenant dietary regulations that once separated Israelites from the surrounding nations are no longer binding. The inclusion of the Gentiles is revealed to Peter in a vision that a faithful Jew living out of Leviticus would understand: a sheet descended at mealtime filled with all kinds of unclean animals for him to kill and eat (Acts 10:10–16).140 Peter’s objection testifies to how strong a covenant boundary-marker the dietary laws had become and how effectively they had separated Jews and Gentiles for generations. But through this vision Peter understands that the nations have become clean through faith in Christ: “God has shown me that I should not call any person common or unclean” (Acts 10:28). Gentiles have been granted “repentance that leads to life” (Acts 11:18), cleansed from all unrighteousness, and filled with the Holy Spirit, just as Jewish believers have been (Acts 15:8–9). Israel’s election had always been for the sake of the nations, who are now invited to the table as full participants in the covenant community.
The church wrestled with the nature of this multicultural table fellowship, as chronicled in the book of Acts and Paul’s letters. The Jerusalem Council agreed on four nonnegotiables to bring Jewish and Gentile believers to the same table, drawn in large measure from Leviticus’s laws on holy living for the resident alien. Gentiles had to refrain from things polluted by idols (1 Cor. 8:1–13; 10:18–22), sexual immorality (Lev. 18:6–30), anything strangled (7:24; 17:15), and the ingesting of blood (7:26–27; 17:10–16). Covenant identity has always been meant to be enacted around a shared meal. The meal that is now of eternal significance is the one made up of the body and blood of Jesus, the meal that levels all boundaries to create a new redeemed people, called to “come from east and west and recline at table with Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob in the kingdom of heaven” (Matt. 8:11).Leviticus 11