2:1 The word used to refer to the offerer is “living being” (Hb. nefesh). Like the use of ʾadam in 1:2, this phrasing is inclusive of men and women who are invited to worship through the grain offering.30 Grinding grain and baking bread was a woman’s daily work (26:26). Grain was ground on grinding slabs or small handmills by the women of the household and cooked in ovens or over firepits located in the home’s open courtyard. It took an estimated five hours a day to produce enough bread for a household.31

The grain offering is called the minkhah, which in secular contexts designates tribute offered by a vassal to his sovereign (Judg. 3:15–17; 2 Sam. 8:6; 1 Kings 4:21). In a religious context it comes to designate the grain offering. This suggests that the sacrifice is best understood as covenant tribute, a gift to the Lord who has given the land and its life-sustaining produce. In the service the grain offering appears to have followed the burnt offering (Lev. 14:20; 2 Kings 16:13, 15; 1 Chron. 21:23).

Just as Israelites are commanded to bring the best from the flock, they are to bring the best of the produce of the land. “Fine flour” is semolina, or the inner kernel of durum wheat grown in the Middle East. It is mixed with olive oil (1 Kings 17:12–13), making it burn more easily on the altar’s fire, and offered up with frankincense that makes it fit for the table of the King (1 Kings 10:2, 10; Matt. 2:11). Images of kings from the ancient world picture them with censers before their royal throne.32

2:2 Like the burnt offering surrendered to the priest, who handles its blood, the grain offering changes hands from offerer to priest. A portion or “handful” of the flour is mixed with oil and burned on the altar while the remainder is the Lord’s provision for the priests. The flour offered on the altar is the “memorial portion.” This representative portion stands for the entire grain offering, which will not be directly consumed on the altar. The fistful calls to mind the whole, which in turn brings to remembrance the worshiper who gives it.33 To be remembered by the Lord is to be remembered for covenant blessing (Lev. 26:45).

Frankincense is added for a “pleasing aroma,” metaphorically meaning it makes for an acceptable sacrifice to the Lord. Practically speaking, since uncooked flour does not produce a savory aroma, as cooked grain does, frankincense may be offered with raw flour for the sake of emitting a pleasing odor.34 Meat offerings whose fat sizzles on the altar are a pleasing aroma (1:9; 3:5; 4:31), and cooked bread likewise is a pleasing aroma (2:9).

2:3 Aaron and his sons consume the remainder of the offering as their portion, designated as “most holy,” meaning it must be eaten in the ritually holy place of the courtyard and only by ritually holy people (6:16–18; 7:6).

The priests are privileged to serve the Lord on holy ground and are allotted no inheritance in the land: “To the tribe of Levi Moses gave no inheritance; the Lord God of Israel is their inheritance, just as he said to them” (Josh. 13:33).35 They are instead to live in dependence on the Lord, who will feed them through Israel’s tithes and offerings (Num. 8:18–19; Deut. 18:1–5, Josh. 13:14). Without this offering the servants of God do not eat, and the ministry falters (cf. Neh. 13:10–13). To this day God’s people are called to share their bread with those who serve the church by giving to the Lord to feed the ministers of his Word (1 Cor. 9:14; Gal. 6:6).

2:4–7 Israel’s tribute could be brought prepared in a variety of ways, as commonly would be found on the table. When not offered raw, the grain may be baked as round loaves or as flatbread in an oven (Lev. 2:4), griddle (vv. 5–6), or pan (v. 7). Grain in ancient Israel could be prepared in other ways as well. It was often soaked in water and boiled to make a porridge or gruel, but that does not feature among the acceptable offerings fit for the King’s table. The Lord’s offerings are all made by fire.

Bread was baked in clay ovens (v. 4) in the shape of a beehive and heated by fire at the bottom. The dough would be pressed against the hot interior wall to bake. The soft flatbread was eaten torn into pieces by hand and drizzled with olive oil. An offering could also be cooked on a flat, iron griddle (vv. 5–6) over an open fire (Ezek. 4:3). These breads would be thinner and less soft and thus crumbled before oil was added. Bread cooked in a deeper pan with a lid may have been fried with oil (Lev. 2:7).

2:8–10 These verses refer to the grain offering cooked as bread. Once more the worshiper gives the entirety “to the Lord,” as it belongs to him as tribute and as food for his table. The Lord in turn shares the bread of his table with his servants. After the officiating priest presents the gifts at the altar and burns a memorial portion the priests again receive the remainder from the Lord (cf. v. 3), not the offerer. Both lay Israelite and priest look to the Lord for his daily bread: “The eyes of all look to you, and you give them their food in due season. You open your hand; you satisfy the desire of every living thing” (Ps. 145:15–16).

2:11–12 Leaven and honey are two substances prohibited in the preparation of the grain offering. Bread was made by mixing flour with water and salt and was typically leavened with a fermented starter from a previous batch (sourdough). “Honey” could refer to bee honey but more likely should be identified as date syrup, since Leviticus 2:12 classifies it as “firstfruits” that could be offered to the Lord.36 Leavened bread and date syrup could be presented to the Lord as firstfruits (i.e., first-processed agricultural products), which the priests could eat (Lev. 23:20; Num. 18:12–13), but these could not be consumed by fire on the altar (2 Chron. 31:5).

The reason for forbidding baking with a leavening agent and flavoring with date syrup is not explained. It is sometimes suggested that fermentation was viewed as decay and that any hint of death would be incompatible with the sanctuary, meaning that leaven (which experiences fermentation) and date syrup (which was possibly susceptible to fermentation) were prohibited on the altar.37 Another suggestion is that leavened cakes sweetened with raisins and dates might have too closely resembled offerings to the Canaanite fertility goddess Asherah (Jer. 7:18; Hos. 3:1). Again, the lack of explanation in the text itself makes it difficult to be certain.

2:13 All grain offerings must be seasoned with the “salt of the covenant.”38 Salt was the foremost preservative in the ancient world, preventing decay associated with death. On the altar’s fire salt does not burn or change but is permanent and unalterable. Because of these properties it is used in covenant-making ceremonies to communicate the binding and enduring nature of the agreement.39 This language is picked up when referring to the Lord’s promised provision of regular portions for the priesthood (Num. 18:19). Sharing salt creates a bond among partakers and an obligation that must be honored (cf. Ezra 4:14). Salting the sacrifices reminds the Israelites with every offering that they are covenant allies with the Lord, who requires their allegiance and tribute. The enduring nature of the Lord’s covenant with Israel is evoked by the phrase “everlasting covenant” (Gen. 17:7; Isa. 24:5, 61:8; Jer. 32:40; Ezek. 37:26).

2:14–16 The closing verses likely refer to the other grain in the Israelite diet, barley. The word translated as “firstfruits” may be understood as “first ripe.” Barley is harvested before wheat as the first ripe grain (Ruth 2:23). The grain is roasted over fire and rubbed to release its kernels. A memorial portion of crushed grain is offered with oil and frankincense as with the uncooked wheat (Lev. 2:2).