22:1–21 The people of Israel are “in the plains of [ʿarabah] Moab beyond the Jordan at Jericho” (v. 1; cf. comment on 26:1–51). On the other side of the Jordan the region is called the “plains of [ʿarabah] Jericho” (Josh. 4:13). In addition to the rift stretching from the Dead Sea to the Gulf of Aqaba, “Arabah” also designates the portion between the Dead Sea and the Sea of Galilee (Deut. 3:17). This southeastern end of the Jordan Valley is well watered and densely wooded in biblical times (Num. 24:2, 5–7; 2 Kings 6:4–5; Jer. 49:19; 50:44).183 It is the physical setting of the remainder of Numbers and Deuteronomy, as well as the beginning of Joshua (cf. Num. 33:48; 36:13; Deut. 1:1; 34:1; Josh. 1:1; 3:1). Moses begins his discourses there on the first day of the eleventh month of the fortieth year (Deut. 1:3–5). The journey to Transjordan began after the thirty-day mourning period following Aaron’s death in the fifth month of that year (Num. 20:29; 33:38).

“The Jordan” is the only perennial river in Canaan. From the Sea of Galilee it descends 65 miles (105 km) to the Dead Sea. Its meanderings more than double its length. The steep descent in elevation between these two seas (c. 650 feet [200 m]) conferred the name “Jordan” (yarden; from yarad, “descend”).184 The Israelites camp at Shittim (cf. comment on 25:1–9; cf. 33:49; Josh. 3:1). Across the river, Jericho, 9 miles (14 km) north-northwest of the Dead Sea, controls access to the hill country west of the plains (cf. comment on Num. 33:37–49 [at v. 48]). The Israelites will soon encounter Jericho (Josh. 2:1). Their presence in the plains of Moab has already caused Jericho’s inhabitants to fear (Josh. 2:9). The Moabite king, Balak, has reason for concern because he saw what had happened to the Amorites (Num. 22:2). Israel not only defeated the Amorites; they now control their territory from the Arnon to Mount Hermon. Moab is south of the Arnon.

Although Israel is not to war with them, nor to dispossess them (Deut. 2:9), the Moabites are nevertheless in “great dread [gur]” of Israel’s vast numbers and “overcome with fear [quts]” of their presence (Num. 22:3). Their distress echoes the Lord’s promise made to Israel just before their battles with the Amorites: “I will begin to put the dread [pakhad] and fear [yirʾah] of you on the peoples who are under the whole heaven, who shall hear the report of you and shall tremble and be in anguish because of you” (Deut. 2:25). The Moabites are descendants of Abraham’s nephew, Lot (Gen. 19:36–37). The Midianites are Abraham’s descendants by Keturah (25:2). Like the Amorites, the Midianites live both west and east of the Arabah (Num. 10:29). Midianite clans under elders live in Moab (cf. Gen. 36:35), ruled by a Moabite king.

The fear that Israel will “lick up” everything like an ox does “the grass of the field” (Num. 22:4) is not hyperbole, since the Israelites have vast flocks and herds. For herdsmen, controlling pasturelands and water sources was a regular source of conflict (Gen. 13:6–7; 26:20–21). For husbandmen, outlying marauding bands frequently penetrated cultivated lands after harvest time. There, they devoured readily available foods, and then made off with large quantities of harvested crops (Judg. 6:3, 11; 1 Chron. 11:13–14). Defending these resources required a militia. But Moab was vastly outnumbered by the Israelites.

If Balaam’s name is derived from balaʿ (with a -m nominal ending),185 there may be a play on words recalling the judgment of Korah and his company being “swallowed” (balaʾ; Num. 16:32; 26:10) by the earth. Balaam is a diviner (cf. discussion on 22:7 below; Josh. 13:22). He is never called a prophet (nabiʾ), nor a seer (roʾeh or hozeh; all three terms: 1 Chron. 29:29), nor viewed in a positive manner (Deut. 23:5; Josh. 13:22; 24:9–10; Mic. 6:5; 2 Pet. 2:15; Jude 11; Rev. 2:14). His most heinous deed leads to the death of twenty-four thousand Israelites (Num. 25:9; 31:16). His avarice and malice lead to his end (31:8).

Discovered east of the Jordan near the foot of the Jabbok, the Deir ʿAlla inscription, in language dating to the eighth century BC, mentions a Balaam, son of Beor, in ways comparable to the biblical character. For example, he is said to be a diviner able to avert divine wrath by communicating with gods known as El and Shadday, the two appellations paired in Numbers in Balaam’s discourses (“God [ʾel] . . . the Almighty [shadday]”; Num. 24:4, 16). Balaam is summoned at “Pethor, which is near the River” (22:5) “Pethor” is usually identified with Pitru in upper Mesopotamia, between Aleppo and Carchemish.186 “The River” is the Euphrates (hannahar; e.g., Josh. 24:2 ESV mg.). Deuteronomy 23:4 says Balaam is from “Pethor of Mesopotamia,” or “Pethor in Aram Naharaim” (NIV). Aram Naharaim, “the land of two rivers,” refers to the region between the Euphrates to the west and the Habur River to the east.187 Balaam says he was summoned from “Aram” (cf. comment on Num. 23:1–12 [at v. 7]). Each of the two round trips made between Moab and Pethor by Balaam’s messengers to persuade Balaam to come would require months of travel (cf. Ezra 7:9).188 During his mission Balaam resides in Moab. Afterward he returns to “his place” (Num. 24:25) somewhere in Moab, where he is killed by the Israelites (31:8) who have encamped at Shittim in the Jordan Valley.

The rendering “Amaw” (22:5) is based on ancient inscriptions that possibly mention a land of Amaw, but both the reading and its connection with Pitru are disputed.189 The Hebrew reads “the sons of his people” (bene-ʿammo), as does the LXX. The SP and Vulgate read “sons of Ammon” (cf. ʿammo with a final -n).190 The traditional reading is not difficult (although it never occurs elsewhere for a location), and the expression has parallels (e.g., “the sons of my people,” Gen. 23:11; “the children of their people,” Lev. 20:17). Moreover, Balaam speaks of his return to “my people” (Num. 24:14).

“Curse . . . cursed . . . bless . . . blessed” (22:6) are the key words around which the Balaam narrative and discourses turn (cf. Section Overview). Their twofold repetition in Balaam’s first oracle ushers in a high frequency of occurrences of the terms throughout the narrative and the discourses. Balaam’s third oracle ends with the terms in inverted order: “Blessed . . . bless . . . cursed . . . curse” (24:9). Forms of the word “curse” (ʾarar) occur seven times (22:6 [3x], 12; 23:7; 24:9 [2x]). Another term translated “curse” (qabab) occurs ten times (22:11, 17; 23:8 [2x], 11, 13, 25 [2x], 27; 24:10). The semantically related “denounce” (zaʿam) appears three times (23:7, 8 [2x]). Forms of “bless” (barak) occur fourteen times (22:6 [2x], 12; 23:11 [2x], 20 [2x], 25 [2x]; 24:1, 9 [2x], 10 [2x]).

Ultimately, God alone blesses (Num. 6:24; 24:1; cf. Gen. 1:22, 28) and curses (Num. 23:8; cf. Gen. 3:14, 17). His covenant blessing occasions strength, health, abundance, and victory (e.g., Lev. 26:4–9; Deut. 28:2–13). Covenant curses cause weakness, sickness, dearth, and defeat (e.g., Lev. 26:16–33; Deut. 28:15–68; cf. Mark 11:21). As polar opposites, blessing is life and good, whereas curse is death and evil (Deut. 30:15, 19). Blessing and curses are often expressed in terms of good/favor or evil/harm/disaster (Num. 10:29; Josh. 23:15; Job 2:10; Jer. 32:42; 39:16–18; 44:27; Zeph. 1:12). Intermediaries can invoke God to bless or curse (Num. 22:6, 12; Deut. 28:2, 15; Gal. 1:7–8) and, in some cases, directly invoke a blessing or curse (Num. 23:8; Deut. 33:1; 1 Cor. 5:5). Evil spirits enjoined by diviners can inflict curses; but doing so is never outside divine purview (1 Kings 22:22–23; Job 1:12). Unless it is debilitated by curses, Israel will remain too powerful for Moab (Num. 22:6, 11).

“Fees for divination” renders one word (pl. qesem; lit., “divinations”; 22:7). If these are fees rather than instruments for divination,191 they constitute a down payment; full receipt requires success (vv. 18, 37; 24:11). Balaam practices divination (qasam; Josh. 13:22) for hire. Ezekiel describes its practice in a military context: “The king of Babylon stands at the parting of the way, at the head of the two ways, to use divination. He shakes the arrows; he consults the teraphim; he looks at the liver” (Ezek. 21:21). Given all the sacrifices he orders, Balaam perhaps uses hepatoscopy (divination by studying the liver). Divination is forbidden to Israel (Lev. 19:31; Deut. 18:10, 14). It is a form of rebellion (1 Sam. 15:23) that involves mediums, the spirit world (1 Sam. 28:7–8), and, at times, child sacrifice (Deut. 18:10; 2 Kings 17:17). False prophets employ divination (e.g., Jer. 14:14). Balaam also uses “enchantments” and “omens” (both from nahash; Num. 23:23; 24:1, the term rendered “serpent[s]” in Num. 21:6, 7, 9).

“Lodge here tonight” (22:8) suggests that Balaam anticipates a nocturnal revelatory vision (cf. 24:4, 16). “As the Lord speaks” (v. 8) does not indicate Balaam is a true prophet any more than using the name “Lord ” means he worships him. Like Balak, he has undoubtedly heard what the Lord has done to Egypt and the kingdoms of the Amorites. “God came to Balaam” (v. 9) as he had to Abimelech and Laban, both in a dream, warning them (Gen. 20:3; 31:24). God does not converse with Balaam by using his covenant name, though “the Lord” would put his word in the form of prophetic discourses in Balaam’s mouth (Num. 23:5, 16). “And said” (22:9) suggests the revelation is auditory. God forbids Balaam to go with the messengers to “curse the people, for they are blessed” (v. 12; cf. v. 6). A curse could remove the hedge of blessing (cf. 5:19–28).

After Balaam declines the first summons (22:13–14), Balak sends a second delegation “more in number,” with emissaries “more honorable” (kabed; v. 15), by whom he promises Balaam “great honor” (kabed; v. 17),192 that is, greater wealth (kabod; Gen. 31:1), which Balaam knows to be “silver and gold” (Num. 22:18). As with the first summons, the goal of this second summons is to “curse this people” (v. 17; cf. v. 6). Although acknowledging that he cannot “go beyond the command of the Lord my God” (v. 18), Balaam entreats Balak’s emissaries, “Please stay here tonight” (v. 19), as he had the first messengers (v. 8). God’s “command” is already clear: “You shall not go” (v. 12). Nevertheless, he says he will “know what more the Lord will say to me” (v. 19). His feigned rejection of money is unmasked by his forestalling. Perhaps he hopes to up the ante.

God grants Balaam his desire to go for hire, but not the right to acquiesce to Balak’s demand: “Only do what I tell you” (Num. 22:20). God gives Balaam over to his willfulness (Ps. 81:11–12; Acts 7:42). God sovereignly uses evil desires and deeds to accomplish his purposes (Gen. 50:20; Judg. 14:1–4; Acts 2:23; Rom. 8:28) and then to punish those who indulge in them (Prov. 1:31; Jer. 21:14; Rom. 1:24, 26–27, 28). Balaam’s avarice will be his demise by the hand of those he is commissioned to curse (Num. 31:8).

22:22–41 “God’s anger was kindled” (v. 22; cf. 11:1; 32:13); “anger . . . kindled” is said also of Balaam’s and Balak’s anger (22:27; 24:10). The Lord’s anger is kindled because Balaam went with the intention of enriching himself by cursing God’s people (Deut. 23:5), not to do what God would tell him to do. Balaam’s perversity (cf. Num. 22:32) draws God’s anger.

The “angel of the Lord” (v. 22) appeared to Hagar, Abraham, and Moses (Gen. 16:7; 22:11; Ex. 3:2). There is no referential distinction between “angel of the Lord ” and “angel of God” (cf. Ex. 14:19 and Judg. 2:1; Judg. 13:9 and Judg. 13:16). “Angel of the Lord” occurs ten times in the Balaam narrative. In a figurative sense, ten times means once too often (Gen. 31:7; Job 19:3). In Numbers 22:22 the tenth time leads to divine judgment. First, the angel of the Lord is Balaam’s “adversary” (satan; v. 22; cf. v. 32, “oppose”; 1 Kings 5:4). In the second and seventh occurrences he appears with a “sword in his hand” (Num. 22:23, 31). The tenth time the angel of the Lord reiterates God’s prior command, “Go with the men, but speak only the word that I tell you” (v. 35; cf. v. 20). Speaking as God himself, his command “Go” leads to Balaam’s doom. If he had obeyed in the first place (v. 12), Balaam would not have suffered death (Num. 31:8), the ultimate expression of God’s anger (Ps. 90:7–8) and judgment for his perverse advice that instigates the Baal-peor debacle.

A “narrow path between the vineyards” (Num. 22:24) describes stone-walled, terraced hillsides, perhaps already in Moab, reputed for wine production (Jer. 48:33). Such descriptions (cf. Num. 22:26) show that Balaam’s encounter with the angel, rather than occurring on a route crossing the plains, comes in mountainous terrain, which fits well with where Balaam is received (cf. v. 36) and where he will preside over his rituals (v. 41; 23:3, 9, 14, 28). The donkey “lay down under Balaam” (22:27). The observation of animal behavior is part of divination. The Ugaritic Keret Legend includes a horse’s lying down while drawing the chariot of a king or prince as an omen of failure in his mission (cf. 1 Sam. 6:8–9).193

“The Lord opened the mouth of the donkey” (Num. 22:28), anticipating the Lord’s putting his word in Balaam’s mouth (cf. v. 38). The donkey presents the opposite qualities of Balaam (vv. 23–30). It sees the angel, which Balaam does not. Balaam beats his donkey three times for actions which, as it turns out, save his life. The donkey has proven its selfless, faithful service to his master. Balaam proves himself self-serving and untrustworthy to God. “Then the Lord opened [galah] the eyes of Balaam” (v. 31): when having revelatory visions, Balaam claims his eyes have been “uncovered” (form of galah; 24:4, 16). Balaam confesses neither his greed nor his treachery but only that he erred by persisting to advance while the angel was blocking the path: “I did not know that you stood in the road.” He proposes, “if it is evil in your sight,” to “turn back” (22:34).

“Go . . . speak only the word that I tell you” (v. 35). Despite Balaam’s intentions, God will use him to accomplish his purposes. There is no contradiction between the Lord’s commands “You shall not go” (v. 12) and then “Go” (vv. 20, 35), since the former was linked to “You shall not curse the people” (v. 12) and the latter to “do” and “speak” (vv. 20, 35) only what God says to Balaam. In any event, God has already given Balaam over to his own willful desires in order to accomplish his sovereign will.

Balak greets Balaam “on the border formed by the Arnon,” Moab’s northern border (v. 36). The “extremity of the border” (v. 36) is apparently a western point from which the Israelites can be seen below (cf. discussion on v. 41 below). Irritated by Balaam’s delay in coming, Balak angrily asks, “Am I not able to honor you?” (v. 37), that is, enrich Balaam (cf. comment on 22:1–21 [at v. 17]). Balaam’s earlier stalling tactics—ostensibly waiting for revelation from God—have had their effect (vv. 8, 19). Balaam knows Balak will greatly reward him to get what he wants. He tells Barak he can only speak “the word that God puts in my mouth” (v. 38; cf. 23:5, 12, 16). Given his cupidity, Balaam thereby incites Balak to increase his offer. His subsequent actions of multiplying sacrifices (23:1, 14, 29) and using omens (24:1) all portray a complicit Balaam, “who loved gain from wrongdoing” (2 Pet. 2:15). He has indeed come to get rich by doing Balak’s will.

“Bamoth-baal” (Num. 22:41, “Baal’s high places”; cf. 21:19, Bamoth) here indicates a sacred site in a city, named as a city in Reuben’s inheritance (Josh. 13:17). Balak calls on Baal, a pan-national deity, not the national god of Moab, Chemosh (Num. 21:29; 1 Kings 11:33). The reason Balaam seeks only a “fraction [qatseh, “extremity, edge”] of the people” is probably due to the distance and angle of vision from that vantage point, since the Israelites are encamped in the Jordan Valley around 4,250 feet below (1,300 m) and perhaps as distant as 25 miles (40 km; cf. Num. 22:36). From between the Zered and the Arnon, Moab overlooks the southern half of the Dead Sea. But the encamped Israelites can still be seen to the north of the sea. To be cursed the people have to be seen, if only some of them.