1 Samuel 1:1–28

1:2 Elkanah “had two wives.” While a monogamous relationship between a man and his wife was instituted at creation (Gen. 2:24), it had become accepted in Israel that a man might have more than one wife. The Mosaic law had not explicitly prohibited polygamy, although it introduced regulations to counter its worst effects (Deut. 21:15–17). This situation is not dissimilar to that which prevailed regarding divorce (Matt. 19:8), but polygamy never became a widespread practice because of the costs involved. That Elkanah can support two wives adds to the impression of him as an individual of some substance.

Hannah (meaning “grace” or “favor”) was probably Elkanah’s first wife. When she remained childless, Elkanah feared his family line would die out, so he married Peninnah (meaning “coral” or “pearl”) as well in order to provide an heir. An abundance of children was considered a sign of divine favor (Gen. 16:10; 17:2, 20; Ps. 128:3), and childlessness was viewed as a curse on a woman, stigmatizing her and consigning her to a role of social insignificance. When Peninnah bore Elkanah children while Hannah did not, this introduced a further source of tension and difficulty into the life of the polygamous household.

1:3 Elkanah is a godly man, concerned for the spiritual well-being of his family. Each year he takes them with him on the 15-mile (24-km) journey from Ramah north to the shrine at Shiloh, where the tabernacle and the ark are located (Josh. 18:1).² Perhaps this occurs at the Feast of Booths (Lev. 23:33–43) or at the “yearly feast of the Lord at Shiloh,” which was probably a different, local event (Judg. 21:19).

The use of the title “The Lord of hosts” in this verse is the first occurrence of this divine name in the OT (260 times in total). It may well have arisen during the period of the judges as an abbreviation of “Yahweh, the God of hosts” (cf. 2 Sam. 5:10). Though often taken as originating in a military context, with “hosts/armies” referring to the armies of Israel (e.g., 1 Sam. 17:45; Num. 1:52), here and in verse 11 it is associated with worship, and the “hosts” may be the celestial bodies (Deut. 4:19; Isa. 40:26) or the myriads of angels (Pss. 103:21; 148:2). Thus the title would designate Israel’s God as supreme deity who controls every other power in heaven or on earth. The rendering “Lord Almighty” found in some modern translations reflects the practice of the Septuagint. At this time of national weakness it was good for Israel to be reminded of God’s universal sovereignty and unlimited power.

However, the narrator deliberately introduces the sons of Eli into his account at this point. Eli, the current high priest who officiates at the shrine at Shiloh, is already elderly, leaving his sons in charge of day-to-day affairs. Though no mention is made here of their character or conduct (cf. comments on 2:12–17), for those who know the story their names cast a dark shadow over the scene. Elkanah’s piety and respect for the Lord is not reflected in the attitude of the high priest’s family.

1:4 Each time his family goes to Shiloh, Elkanah offers a sacrifice. Although the ritual for a peace offering prescribed the victim’s fat to be burned and its blood sprinkled on the altar, much of the sacrificed animal was returned to the worshiper to be consumed in a special meal (Lev. 7:11–34). On these occasions it is Elkanah’s practice to provide for Peninnah and her offspring. The description of her as “his wife” contrasts with the information given in the next verse concerning Elkanah’s love for Hannah and suggests his relationship with Peninnah is somewhat cold. Furthermore, “all her sons and daughters” brings out the contrast with Hannah’s situation. This is reminiscent of Jacob’s love for the barren Rachel rather than the fertile Leah (Gen. 29:30–31).

1:5 The phrase translated “double portion” (lit., “one portion of face”) is difficult to interpret and may describe “a worthy portion”—generous but not necessarily twice as large as the others. The Septuagint alternative found in the ESV footnote is also plausible: “And, although he loved Hannah, he would give Hannah only one portion, because the Lord had closed her womb.” In that case it would not be lack of regard for Hannah that led to her receiving a single portion but the fact that she had no child, a condition Elkanah recognized as being divinely imposed. On balance, the translation adopted in the main text is more probable. The storyline implies that there is a contrast in Elkanah’s behavior toward his wives. A double portion is perhaps insensitive to Peninnah’s situation and probably inflamed her animosity toward Hannah, but Elkanah can be obtuse in expressing his affection (v. 8).

The statement that “the Lord had closed her womb,” repeated in the next verse, is a key element in the development of the story. Not only is Hannah childless, but this condition is explicitly attributed to divine action. God kept Hannah from having children so that his sovereign purposes might be achieved by marking Samuel as a special child. Hannah’s trial also brings her closer to God by strengthening her faith and highlighting his gracious response to her plea for a child.

1:6 In the meantime, however, Hannah experiences intense anguish because of “her rival,” a term that may describe a second wife (Lev. 18:18). Peninnah’s cruel treatment of Hannah is similar to Hagar’s attitude toward Sarah (Gen. 16:4). Though they probably live in separate quarters, Peninnah loses no opportunity to “provoke her grievously” (lit., “to vex vexation”), deliberately attempting to agitate and infuriate Hannah, most likely through knowing looks, barbed words, or ostentatious displays of her own children. The fact that “the Lord had closed her womb” explains Peninnah’s behavior. An alternative rendering is “that the Lord had closed her womb,” which would summarize the words Peninnah hurled at Hannah. Hannah’s lack of children means she is not enjoying divine blessing, and her condition is used to question her standing with the Lord—something that would have deeply affected this pious woman.

1:7 The situation deteriorates when the family is inevitably thrown together on their annual pilgrimage to Shiloh; this verse repeats the charge that Peninnah would “provoke” Hannah. “The house of the Lord” describes where the ark was kept (cf. comment on 1:9)—what should have been an occasion of joyful worship is turned into an ordeal for Hannah, who becomes emotionally distressed and loses her appetite, even at this special meal.

1:8 The addition of “her husband” to Elkanah’s name serves to intensify the bond between them. His questions reveal that Hannah is weeping, refusing to eat, and downcast—all symptoms of severe depression. Out of genuine concern, Elkanah tries to ease her anguish and lighten her gloom. “Am I not more to you than ten sons?” is a rhetorical question conveying an emphatic declaration of his love for her, with “ten” symbolizing a complete number. But his words focus more on himself than on empathy toward Hannah’s intense need, as would have been the case had he said, “You are more to me than ten sons.” Elkanah is out of touch with the depth of the tensions in his own household and is imperceptive of Hannah’s feelings.

1:9 The subject of “after they had eaten and drunk” is not specified, and so it is unclear if Hannah participates in the meal after the sacrifice. “In Shiloh” points to the formal nature of the occasion as one from which she cannot easily absent herself. So instead she waits until the meal is over before, unable to bear the situation any longer, rising to engage in what is a more pressing matter for her—setting her situation before God in prayer.

The layout of the shrine at Shiloh did not replicate precisely the arrangements instituted by Moses (cf. comment on 3:3). Hannah probably prayed in the courtyard in front of the tabernacle. The term “temple” need not refer to a permanent structure (cf. comment on 2 Sam. 7:7), although at Shiloh the ark seems to have been housed in more than a tent, as it included a “doorpost” and at least one set of double doors (1 Sam. 3:15). Possibly these stood in front of the sacred area where Eli was sitting “on the seat,” a special seat of honor—often a “throne” from which, as high priest, he supervised the activities of the sanctuary precincts.

1:10 Since she is childless and subject to cruel taunts, Hannah has become “deeply distressed” (lit., “bitter of soul”; cf. Ruth 1:13, 20; 2 Kings 4:27). As she brings the troubles of her heart before God in prayer, her emotional turmoil is evident as she “wept bitterly” (lit., “wept weeping,” an intensified verbal expression³).

1:11 Hannah’s prayer begins with adoration, addressing God as “Lord of hosts” (cf. v. 3). She accepts his unlimited power to intervene in life, and her faith assures her that the Lord of the universe is interested in her personal affairs. Three times she terms herself “your servant” (lit., “maidservant”), expressing her loyal submission to him and her confidence that he is concerned with her pain from external factors that have brought her low in mental and spiritual anguish.

Hannah’s prayer takes the form of a vow. This is not a device to attract divine attention or coerce a divine response but an expression of faith in God’s power to intervene effectively. Vows were not to be entered into lightly (Num. 30:2; Deut. 23:22–23), and it was possible for a husband to nullify a vow of his wife if he disagreed with it (Num. 30:6–8). Here, however, Elkanah agrees with Hannah’s undertaking and helps her to fulfill it (1 Sam. 1:21–23).

On the one hand, Hannah petitions the Lord to “look,” not with a fleeting glance but with concentrated attention. “Remember . . . not forget” is an appeal for action, not merely mental recall (cf. v. 19). “Give to your servant a son [lit., “seed/offspring of men”]” is the specific request she places before the Lord.

On the other hand, Hannah commits herself to respond sacrificially when her prayer is answered. The reciprocity involved is indicated by the repeated “give . . . give.” She will willingly dedicate her son to lifelong service of the Lord who gives him. This will be specifically marked by his hair remaining uncut. The Septuagint spelled this out in considerable detail: “I shall set him before you as a Nazirite until the day of his death, and wine and strong drink he will not drink, and a razor will not touch his head” (so also 4QSam^a). While this is undoubtedly a secondary expansion of the text based on Numbers 6:3 and motivated by the similar dedication of Samson in Judges 13:4, it is probably an accurate view of what Hannah intends. A Nazirite vow (Num. 6:1–21) was a voluntary undertaking of an individual for a particular period of time, but the dedication of Samson and Samuel (and later that of John the Baptist) was lifelong.

1:12–13 Hannah’s deep distress leads to prolonged, earnest prayer. “Before the Lord” is not simply “to the Lord” but implies “in the sanctuary precincts at Shiloh, where God was especially present.” Eli, supervising the sanctuary, notices her—especially her lips as they move soundlessly. “Speaking in her heart” indicates that Hannah was engaged in silent prayer, an uncommon practice in the ancient world. Because she does so for some time in obvious agitation and distress, Eli concludes that she is a “drunken woman.” Such behavior may sadly not have been unknown at the tabernacle, especially during the feasts. Again Hannah is misunderstood, this time by Eli, who, lacking the insight needed to recognize true piety when he sees it, judges rashly by outward appearances.

1:14 Eli reprimands Hannah. His statement, “How long will you go on being drunk?” is not a request for information but a rebuke to desist from drinking. His command to “Put your wine away from you” calls on her to sober up from the intoxicated state he surmises she is in.

1:15 Longsuffering Hannah responds respectfully to Eli, but she firmly rebuts his allegation: “I have drunk neither wine nor strong drink.” “Strong drink” was a beverage from fermented grain or fruit other than grapes. She instead describes herself as “troubled in spirit,” a unique expression for being overwhelmed by unhappy circumstances. Her self-description as “pouring out my soul before the Lord” indicated that rather than leaving her emotions to fester in internal bitterness, she has expressed her deepest desires in sustained entreaty to God.

1:16 Hannah’s reference to herself in the third person is a further expression of humility as she urges Eli to revise his opinion of her. “A worthless woman” is literally “a daughter of Belial.” Though Belial later became a name for Satan (2 Cor. 6:15), at this point the noun denoted conduct that was evil and without value. Thus “daughter of Belial” was a contemptuous term for a woman who was good for nothing because she rejected ordinary social constraints and behavior patterns (cf. 1 Sam. 2:12; 10:27; 25:17, 25; 30:22; 2 Sam. 16:7; 20:1).

Rather, Hannah is one who suffered “great anxiety and vexation”—“vexation” comes from the same Hebrew root as “provoke” and “grievously” (1 Sam. 1:6). Peninnah’s tormenting remarks have clearly hit their mark.

1:17 Hannah’s later conversation with Eli (1:26–28) suggests that she probably explained all of her circumstances to Eli, including the substance of her request. Although Eli does not apologize for his mistaken assessment of her conduct, he revises his opinion and pronounces a priestly blessing on her (cf. Num. 6:22–27; Deut. 10:8)—the only place in Scripture where a priest is described as carrying out this duty. The blessing to “Go in peace” (Hb. leki leshalom; cf. 1 Sam. 20:42; 29:7; 2 Sam. 15:9) anticipates a life characterized by divine blessing. Eli’s words leave the outcome in the hands of “the God of Israel,” the covenant King who provides for his people. The statement “your petition with which you have petitioned him” (AT) repeats two forms of the root shaʼal, “to ask,” which occurs a further seven times in the chapter (cf. comment on 1 Sam. 1:27–28). There is irony in the scene as Eli approves a request that paves the way for the overthrow of his own family line.

1:18 “Favor” is from the same Hebrew root as the name Hannah (v. 2), so there is an element of wordplay here. It is difficult to be certain whether Hannah’s words are a polite acknowledgment of Eli’s changed attitude or a request for further prayer on her behalf. At any rate, Hannah is encouraged by Eli’s blessing, interpreting it as an indication of the Lord’s favorable reception of her request. So, she returns to the family group, and the fact that she “ate” implies she is sufficiently recovered from her depression to join with them at mealtime. “Her face was no longer sad” because her spiritual problem has been resolved as she regains her confidence that God will answer her prayer.

1:19 With an economy of words this verse closes the scene at Shiloh as Elkanah and his family complete the prescribed rituals at the sanctuary before returning home to Ramah. “Elkanah knew Hannah his wife,” but the outcome of their intimacy was divinely superintended. In the phrase “the Lord remembered her,” the verb “remember” goes beyond intellectual recall to action appropriate to the circumstances under consideration (cf. Gen. 8:1; 30:22). The Lord sovereignly intervenes in Hannah’s life and answers her prayer.

1:20 When God gifted a son to Hannah, “She called his name Samuel,” which means “name of God” or “heard of God.” In Hannah’s explanation—“I have asked for him from the Lord”—the phrase “from the Lord” comes first for emphasis, and the verb “ask” is one that features throughout the passage (cf. comment on 1:27–28). Since “asked of God” would be something like shaʼul meʼel, which would be close in sound to Samuel (shemuʼel ), Hannah’s comment probably represents a popular association of sounds rather than a strict etymology. However, the view has often been advanced that her explanation fits the name Saul (shaʼul ) better than the name Samuel, and the claim has been made that this birth narrative was originally Saul’s. But there is in fact nothing in the text to support such an understanding. More probably the narrator incorporates this remark to bring out the ironic contrast between Samuel as the one truly asked for from the Lord—and eventually rejected by Israel—and Saul (whose name means “asked for”), the one sought by Israel as Samuel’s replacement but rejected by the Lord.

1:21 As the time for the family’s annual pilgrimage to Shiloh approaches, Elkanah continues his normal practice of taking “all his house” with him to the sanctuary. We do not know precisely what the phrase “to pay his vow” refers to. It may be a thank offering for the birth of his son, or perhaps is related to some aspect of the vow Hannah made and to which he acquiesced. However, the context suggests that Elkanah’s annual visit is the product of a solemn vow he has previously made.

1:22 Hannah breaks with their usual practice and instead stays at Ramah with her infant son. Nevertheless, she makes clear to Elkanah that as soon as Samuel is weaned, she will take him to Shiloh and dedicate him there to the service of the Lord. Her intentions—“that he may appear in the presence of the Lord” (cf. 2:18)—indicate formal presentation to the Lord and commencement of a life of special service at the sanctuary. The term “forever” (meaning “perpetually” rather than “eternally”) shows that Hannah accepts that her son will remain there for the rest of his life.

1:23 Elkanah reads the situation more perceptively than before and accepts his wife’s proposal, expressing his desire that Hannah would in due course fulfill what she has engaged to do. Because no divine word is mentioned in the context, the statement “may the Lord establish his word” (cf. 3:12) is rendered “may the Lord establish that which comes from your mouth” (AT) in the Septuagint. However, it is not improper to identify a reference here to the divine blessing conveyed through Eli in 1:17. It would seem that both Hannah and Elkanah expect the child born in this special way to play an extraordinary role in the outworking of God’s purpose.

In the ancient world, children were nursed for much longer than in current western practice, and “until she weaned him” may cover at least three years, a period mentioned in 2 Maccabees 7:27. So Samuel is perhaps over three years old before he is taken to Shiloh.

1:24 Hannah displays no reservations about taking Samuel to Shiloh, and they go well equipped for sacrifice. Most modern versions emend the text to read “a three-year-old bull” rather than the plural expression “three bulls” (cf. ESV mg.). However, the Hebrew text is not problematic and describes an extravagant gesture that would have reflected well on Hannah’s gratitude and the resources at Elkanah’s disposal. It has been suggested that one bull was for a burnt offering, one for the purification offering expected after childbirth (Leviticus 12), and one for the peace offering made in fulfillment of Hannah’s vow.⁴ An ephah of flour was approximately three times the quantity of flour offered with a single bull (Num. 15:9), and that too accords with three animals being offered. Moreover, a skin of wine held up to 6 gallons (22 liters) of wine.

The phrase “and the child was young” is literally “and the child a child,” repeating the term naʻar. While this might point to the unexpected nature of the action, not only in bringing a young child to the sanctuary but even more so in leaving him there, there is also the possibility of a wordplay on the various senses of the term (cf. 1 Sam. 2:11 ESV mg.), so that the focus is on Samuel’s status as servant rather than on his age.⁵

1:25 Two actions are described in this verse: first, a sacrifice is offered, and then both parents formally present young Samuel to Eli. The singular “bull” may support the ESV reading in verse 24, or the term may be a collective usage. Perhaps the offering of the two regular bulls is passed over, with attention focused on the one connected with Samuel’s birth.

1:26 “Oh, my lord!” was a polite method of beginning a conversation with a superior. “As you live” (lit., “as your soul/person lives”; cf. 2 Sam. 11:11; 14:19) is an oath formula by which Hannah solemnly attests to Eli that she is the woman he had interviewed at least three years earlier while she stood praying in the courtyard of the tabernacle (1 Sam. 1:9).

1:27–28 Hannah gratefully acknowledges the Lord’s favorable response to her request. In these verses, “my petition” and “I made” (v. 27) and “I have lent” and “he is lent” (v. 28) play on words derived from the root shaʼal, “to ask” (already found in vv. 17, 20). “I have lent” is probably a formal declaration accompanying her action: “Hereby, in the utterance of these words, I do hand over.” “Lend” does not convey any thought of a future return of Samuel: it is an utter and irrevocable dedication that is in view.

“And he worshiped the Lord there” (cf. comment on 1:3). It is unclear who does so, but it is hardly likely to have been young Samuel. Eli is passive throughout this closing scene. Possibly Elkanah is intended (with “worship” forming an inclusio with v. 3). By his action in bowing to the Lord, he formally signifies his acceptance of the transaction and places his seal upon it, while his wife’s response is expressed in the following prayer. Another possibility is that the Hebrew verb form is in fact a plural, with “they [the family] worshiped” as the intended sense.⁶