Bob Fyall
Isaiah
Overview
On approaching the long and magnificent book of Isaiah, this commentator is reminded of the Breton Fisherman’s Prayer: “The sea is so large and my boat is so small.” Such is a good attitude to have, reminding us that this book sits in judgment on us, not we on the book. Yet the length should not be exaggerated. In the ESV Reader’s Bible—in which the text is free flowing, without verses, multiple columns, or other distractions—the book runs to 120 pages, which would not generally be regarded as a particularly long book.
Isaiah 6, in which Isaiah relates his call to be a prophet, crystallizes many themes of the book: the holiness of God, his kingship, sin and atonement, the weakness but continuing future of the Davidic line, the deafness and blindness of God’s people, and the exile and the subsequent perpetuation of a holy seed. In many ways these are the concerns of all the preexilic prophets, yet Isaiah develops these themes in an especially full-orbed way. In particular he explores in depth how God’s covenant is not set aside by the judgment of the exile. Further, Isaiah’s vision is not confined to that period; judgment and salvation span all God’s dealings with humanity, from the fall to the new creation.
These themes are particularly related to the Jerusalem/Zion motif. From Isaiah’s vantage point in the eighth century BC, which encompasses the whole book, the prophet sees the kingdoms of this world and all their glory (esp. in the oracles against the nations in chs. 13–27) and foresees that one day the Davidic king will reign in heaven and on earth. Isaiah is continually moving between Jerusalem and the rest of the world because one day Zion and the new creation will be one.
The prophet’s message is uncompromising, bringing deafness and blindness as the people of his own day harden their hearts against the word of the Lord. Yet judgment is not to be the final word; light will overcome darkness, and there will be a message of hope for the nations. This hope will be realized only by those who have faith in the Lord: “If you are not firm in faith, you will not be firm at all” (7:9).
Title
“The vision of Isaiah” (1:1) stands as the title of the whole book, and no other author is named in the course of the prophecy. Isaiah is mentioned again in 2:1; 7:3; 13:1; 20:2; 37:2, 6, 21; 38:1, 4, 21; 39:3, 5, 8. He does not appear explicitly in chapters 40–66, but by itself this proves nothing. The earliest edition of the book found at Qumran is usually dated to 125–100 BC and contains the entire prophecy.
Author
It is likely that the author of Isaiah is the prophet himself (cf. Preaching from Isaiah: Authorship and Unity). Isaiah moved in circles close to the court (rather like Elisha and Zephaniah). He was married, with children (7:3; 8:3). His ministry spanned at least fifty years, from the death of Uzziah to that of Hezekiah. He probably lived on into the dreadful days of Manasseh and may have been martyred during that reign (perhaps alluded to in Heb. 11:37). This is the view of the apocryphal Ascension of Isaiah and would fit the statement that “Manasseh shed very much innocent blood” (2 Kings 21:16).
Date and Occasion
During the reigns of the four kings mentioned in Isaiah 1:1, two main developments form the background of Isaiah’s prophecy—and, indeed, that of other prophets as well, such as Hosea, Amos, and Micah. The first relates to the international scene, especially the growing Assyrian menace. Uzziah had been a good and effective king until he tragically overreached (2 Chronicles 26). By the time of Uzziah’s death, Assyria, which had been relatively weak, began to flex its muscles. This began first under the powerful king Tiglath-pileser III (744–727 BC), who embarked on an aggressive policy of bringing neighboring countries under his control. This is the king whom Ahaz foolishly seeks to enlist as an ally against a coalition of Syria and the northern kingdom of Israel (2 Kings 16:5–16; 2 Chron. 28:16–21). That danger is the background of Isaiah 7–10, as Ahaz chooses power politics instead of trust in the Lord (Isa. 7:9). The policy is futile and dangerous, and the northern kingdom of whom Ahaz is so afraid is itself exiled in 722 BC.
A very different attitude regarding Assyria is shown by Hezekiah when Sennacherib (705–681 BC) invades Judah but fails to take Jerusalem. The story in chapters 36–37 recounts Hezekiah’s trust in Yahweh, in contrast to his father (37:14–20). An unwise flirtation with King Merodach-baladan of Babylon results in a prophecy concerning the future exile of Judah in that country. Yet Ahaz and Hezekiah represent the two attitudes of 1:19–20: Ahaz refuses and rebels, but Hezekiah, despite all his flaws, is willing and obedient. Faith matters in the world of international powers.
The second development is related to social disintegration and disregard of the poor on the part of the rich, already powerfully exposed by Amos (e.g., Amos 5:10–24). Isaiah critiques the same attitude and behavior in chapter 1 of his prophecy. The leaders of Judah have turned Zion into Sodom; counterfeit religion and blatant hypocrisy follow the prescribed rituals of Scripture but do not tremble at the word of the Lord. Justice is trampled underfoot, while the poor and weak are oppressed and bribery and corruption abound. Faith matters in daily life.
These concerns run throughout the whole book. The choice facing everyone is between life and death (cf. Isa. 1:18–20 with 66:24). The power politics are placed against the background of Yahweh’s lordship of the nations, through which the mighty Assyrians are simply the “rod of [his] anger” (10:5). This idea is developed in relation to the powers of the day in the oracles against the nations. In chapters 40–48 the theology of Yahweh’s absolute sovereignty is further developed, as Cyrus is seen as God’s anointed instrument to restore the people to their land (44:24–45:13). This points onward to the day in which the Lord will restore Zion (60:1–22) and create a new heavens and a new earth (65:17). A much greater savior and servant than Cyrus will bring justice to the nations (42:1–4), be a light to the Gentiles (49:1–7) and bear the sins of his people (52:13–53:12). This servant is Immanuel (7:14) and the child with four names (9:6), who is the “shoot from the stump of Jesse” (11:1).
The concern for social justice, community, and personal righteousness of the early chapters is powerfully present also in chapters 56–66, in which the new creation is marked by these qualities so lacking in the present. This echoes chapters 2–4, in which the Zion to come (2:2–5; 4:2–6) is contrasted with false Zion (2:6–4:1). Such links point to the unity of the book and its origin in eighth-century-BC Jerusalem.
Genre and Literary Features
The book of Isaiah is a literary masterpiece and one of the peaks of the canon alongside such works as Job, Psalms, Romans, and Hebrews. The book displays a blend of poetic oracles, preaching, and history that forms one of the fullest and richest presentations of the message of judgment and salvation to be found anywhere in the Bible. To glimpse something of this, it would be useful to look at three passages from different parts of the book.
The first passage is the fine Zion poem (2:2–5) that establishes the theme of Zion, the mountain of the Lord, as the place at which the glory of God will be fully revealed. The language is of cosmic transformation, of the small hill of Zion becoming a great mountain filling the whole earth. The startling metaphor of the nations’ “flowing” shows this to be a work of God; water does not usually flow uphill. Peace will reign and weapons of war will no longer be needed. All of this will come from an obedience to the Word of God that shows itself in transformed living. Such passages inspire godly living on earth to anticipate that day.
The second passage is the great chapter 40, the most glorious in the book, with its theology of the incomparability of Yahweh, its magnificent evocation of the vastness of the universe, and its overall message of hope and a God who cannot fail. An additional element here is a powerful satire on the silliness of idolatry, which involves worshiping not only something that is less than God but something that is even less than humanity (40:19–20, developed more fully in 44:9–20). The contrast with Yahweh, Creator and Lord of history, could not be more striking. Eloquent words express something of the greatness of the Lord.
The third passage is that which sections the new heavens and the new earth (65:13–25), a glowing and evocative passage that, as do earlier sections of the book, sees the new cosmos and the new Jerusalem as different ways of looking at the same reality. The language is of human life and activity totally freed from the curse, akin to an animal being freed from predators. This is more than merely restoration of the garden of Eden, for the Serpent is gone and there is no more possibility of sin or death. Salvation is far more than return from exile or even the present rule of God. The ultimate aim is for God’s glory, which fills the whole earth (6:3), to be visibly experienced and enjoyed.
Theology of Isaiah
The message of judgment and salvation (cf. 1:18–20) is thoroughly explored in the commentary. Here it will be possible only to sketch lightly the main themes.
God
The Bible as a whole is God’s book about God, but nowhere is his majesty more eloquently expressed than in Isaiah. This theme flows from the call of the prophet, who sees the God of transcendent holiness seated on his throne. God is the Creator and Lord of history, two vital elements in Hezekiah’s prayer for help against Sennacherib (37:14–20). In chapters 40–48, the Lord God controls the future, which idols are incapable of doing. Israel’s God is not part of the cosmos but is its Creator.
God hates oppression and injustice, along with the counterfeit worship that conceals them (1:1–20). But he is tender and compassionate to his people (e.g., 25:8; 40:27–31; 63:7–9). This is further illustrated in chapter 61, which the Lord Jesus Christ uses to introduce his public ministry (Luke 4:17–19).
Immanuel
How is God’s power and salvation to be realized in history? Further, how is his promise to the house of David to be carried out after the exile (cf. esp. 55:3–5)? Ahaz is a disgrace to the Davidic line (7:13), and thus the Immanuel promise (7:14) and the child with four names (9:6) is vital for the future. Hezekiah is a credit to the royal line and stands up to Sennacherib as David had to Goliath (chs. 36–37), yet even he succumbs to flattery (39:1–4). Only the shoot from the stump of Jesse (11:1–10) will be the King who rules in righteousness and peace.
The anticipated figure is developed in chapters 40–66 mainly in the role of the servant of the Lord. In chapter 2, the nation had been called to be a light to the nations, but, as the true Israel, the servant will bring light and justice. Through his suffering (52:13–53:12) the way back to God is opened for all who believe. The servant is truly fulfilled in Jesus, the light of the world (John 8:12); he will reign over the new creation.
Faith
The leaders of Israel are challenged in Isaiah 1–39 to have faith in God rather than trusting in political alliances. This emphasis is strong later in the book as well, as pagan gods are primarily personifications of natural phenomena or forces both benevolent and destructive. They are assumed to be arbitrary, and they cannot be trusted but must be placated by magic. Faith not only is relevant to eighth-century-BC Jerusalem but is at the heart of the gospel. The central chapters 36–37 show the ultimate wisdom of trusting God because of his unchanging covenant with his people.
Sin and Salvation
Deliberate sin or rebellion is the opposite of believing faith; its importance is shown by its occurrence at the beginning (1:2) and end (66:24) of the book. This is illustrated by idolatry and pride. Pride is the overwhelming characteristic of Assyria; the other nations and the people of Judah are repeatedly warned against this. The Lord does not seek mere religion; he demands genuine holiness. Trembling at the word of God is the antidote to both pride and fear (66:2).
Salvation comes from God alone, and the prophet repeatedly calls the people to experience the same cleansing he did at his calling (6:6–7). Salvation is a fulfillment of the promises to Abraham and has been shown specifically in the exodus. The servant’s work brings salvation not only from physical exile (as Cyrus did) but from sin and death. This will result not only in transformed individuals but in a new creation.
Numerous other themes run through the book: Zion/Jerusalem; the theology of history; the dual identity of God’s people as Jacob/Israel, which forms a shorthand for the whole history of God’s people; the work of the Spirit; and the new creation. All ultimately focus on Christ, who is Immanuel and brings light to the people dwelling in darkness in Galilee, fulfilling 9:1–2. He is the promised son of David who will reign forever, and his cross and exaltation begin an irresistible movement toward the new creation—where death will be swallowed up forever.
Preaching from Isaiah
Isaiah can be a daunting challenge to preachers because of its length, its profundity, and the complexity of much of its poetry. As Paul says of himself, it is often “unknown, and yet well known” (2 Cor. 6:9). Sermons are often preached on Isaiah 6, particularly at ordinations and commissioning services. Parts of chapters 7–9 see frequent use at Christmas. Chapters 40 and 53 are very familiar—not least through Handel’s Messiah. But large parts of chapters 13–34, for example, are seldom covered.
This is a great shame, for particularly in our self-centered culture we need sermons that will exalt God, strengthen faith, and warn of judgment. The doctrine of God needs to be preached not merely theoretically but in its practical and life-changing power. For that purpose, Isaiah’s splendid and multilayered picture of the Lord is full of great and necessary truths. It is hard work, but preaching properly from any biblical text will require time and effort.
The best way to tackle Isaiah is likely not to preach through the entire book at once but to cover it in two to three years, taking perhaps five or six Sundays at a time and interspersing shorter series on smaller books from time to time. It is important that the gaps should not be so long that the overall theme of the book is lost. It is not necessary always to take only one chapter, as some units clearly straddle chapter divisions (notably 52:13–53:12), and it may be that chapter 40 could be tackled in three parts, for example.
Most preachers will find the oracles against the nations (chs. 13–27) the most difficult to preach. One way to do so would be to take the oracles against Babylon (13:1–14:23) and Egypt (19:1–20:6) as representative of the truths of this section. This does not mean the other oracles do not matter; depending on one’s situation a preacher might lead Bible studies on these or deliver a few other sermons majoring on God’s message to the nations and its contemporary relevance.
Again, depending on one’s situation, the preacher might want to spend a few sessions on some of the longer chapters. Chapter 40 could usefully be treated in this way: Is God big enough to control history (40:1–11)? Is he big enough to rule creation (40:12–26)? Is he big enough to care for us (40:27–31)? A similar treatment would be appropriate for other chapters, and this might also work well if a church had a midweek service. The opposite method could be used, with a small cluster of chapters such as Isaiah 2–4 leading to a sermon on true and false Zion.
This commentary has been particularly written with preachers and teachers in mind, not only in the Response section but also in the body of the exposition, where a foundation of responsible exegesis is laid for the application of this great book. Of course, interpreters will disagree at some points, but it is part of good teaching to weigh possibilities and come to well considered conclusions.
Christ fills this book not only in the obvious passages such as Isaiah 7–9; 53 but in the fulfillment of judgment and salvation in his death, resurrection, ascension, sending of the Spirit, and return in power and glory. He alone can cleanse our sins, keep us faithful, and present us before the presence of his glory. Thus when we preach this book we have an unusually varied opportunity to preach Christ.1
Authorship and Unity
Matters of date and authorship should not loom large in our preaching, but preachers need to engage with these issues in order to handle Scripture properly. The book has come to us as a unity, and, until the eighteenth century, this unity was hardly questioned. Late in that century, Doderlein and Eichhorn argued that chapters 40–66 came from a prophet of the exile who became known as “Deutero-Isaiah,” or sometimes “Isaiah of Babylon.” This view was popularized in the English-speaking world by George Adam Smith’s 1890 commentary. The work of Bernhard Duhm in his 1892 commentary became the dominant critical orthodoxy. He argued for a “Trito-Isaiah” who was responsible for chapters 56–66. Anticipating later views, he further argued that much of chapters 1–39 was not from “Isaiah of Jerusalem.” More recent critical studies have argued for a more unitary book compiled by a redactor possibly in the fifth century BC, but without accepting one author.
Two main reasons are given for this multiauthor view; they can be classed as literary and theological reasons. It is argued that there is a major difference in style and tone beginning at chapter 40 and a less obvious but still discernible change at chapter 56, which shows, it is claimed, that the book is the work of at least three and probably far more authors. But this ignores two considerations. The first is the sheer length of Isaiah’s ministry over forty—perhaps nearer to fifty—years. Shakespeare’s writing career was only some twenty-one years, but the differences between an early play such as The Taming of the Shrew and a late one such as Cymbeline are profound. We would expect a speaker/author to develop his style over the years. Another version of this argument addresses Isaiah’s sheer versatility. John Goldingay argues that there are four voices in the book: the ambassador, the disciple, the poet, and the preacher.2 This is perhaps reasonable enough in itself, but why should these “voices”—and others—not be the words of one superbly gifted speaker and writer?
Also, that which is often perceived as an inconsistency, such as the portrait of the servant and God the warrior, may be complementary—for no one metaphor can contain the whole truth about God. Similarly, the judgment and hope passages are two sides of the same coin. If the prophet, unable to preach publicly during the dark days of Manasseh, collected his material and perhaps supplemented it with written oracles never publicly delivered, this would make good sense of the book as we have it. It is a literary masterpiece, and such works are not generally produced by redactors.
The second main argument is theological and concerns the very nature of revelation and inspiration. The argument holds that an eighth-century prophet could not have known of the exile and especially the name of the Persian king Cyrus, who would bring it to an end almost two centuries after his time. This is based on a view of prophets as those who spoke simply to and for their own generation, perhaps making a few shrewd guesses about the future. The biblical view, however, is that the prophets “spoke from God as they were carried along by the Holy Spirit” (2 Pet. 1:21). Obviously Isaiah spoke to his own time, and, as already argued, all his material is relevant to the eighth century. Yet, because they spoke from the perspective of the day of the Lord, the prophets’ message was relevant to all times, not simply to the immediate situation. The exile would be such a challenge to Israel’s faith that God’s people had to be prepared for it ahead of time; they had to know that it would come to an end and that God’s covenant with the remnant of his people would remain intact—not only to the postexilic world but to all eternity.
As already noted, the book comes to us as a unity. In the earliest manuscript from Qumran (1QIsaa; c. 125 BC), chapter 40 begins on the last line of the column containing chapter 39. There is no textual evidence for the existence of Deutero- or Trito-Isaiah. Chapter 39 ends with a prediction of exile in Babylon, and chapter 40 opens with the return of the exiles.
The NT, which quotes Isaiah more often than any other prophet, frequently brings together citations from different parts of the book, attributing them equally to Isaiah. John 12:38–40 quotes Isaiah 53:1 and 6:10, attributing both to Isaiah. Luke 4:17–19 cites Isaiah 61:1–2 as from the “scroll of the prophet Isaiah.” Paul in Romans 9–10 quotes from different parts of the book and sees them each as the words of Isaiah. There are other examples, but these suffice to show that the NT regards the book as the work of one man.
The real danger of the fragmentation of the book is that it destroys confidence in a well-defined structure for the book, beginning as it does with calling heaven and earth to condemn the people’s sin and rebellion (Isa. 1:2) and ending with the new heavens and earth as the home of the redeemed people. This is a gospel that fulfils the purpose for which God has created the universe.
Outline
I. The King High and Lifted Up (1:1–12:6)
A. How the Lord Deals with His People’s Sin (1:1–31)
B. A Tale of Two Cities (2:1–22)
C. God Gave Them Up (3:1–4:1)
D. Zion Is Secure (4:2–6)
E. The Song of the Vineyard (5:1–30)
F. Holy, Holy, Holy (6:1–13)
G. God with Us (7:1–25)
H. Darkness and Light (8:1–9:7)
I. Discipline and Deliverance (9:8–10:34)
J. The King Will Reign (11:1–12:6)
II. The Oracles against the Nations (13:1–27:13)
A. The First Series (13:1–20:6)
1. The World Passes Away: Babylon and Assyria (13:1–14:27)
2. Difficult Neighbors: Philistia and Moab (14:28–16:14)
3. Near and Far: Damascus and Ephraim (17:1–18:7)
4. I Cannot Tell How He Will Win the Nations: Egypt (19:1–20:6)
B. The Second Series (21:1–23:18)
1. Nations under Judgment: The Desert by the Sea (21:1–17)
2. Impaired Vision in the Valley of Vision (22:1–25)
3. Uncertain Riches: Tyre (23:1–18)
C. The Third Series (24:1–27:13)
1. The Earth Shaken in Judgment (24:1–23)
2. The Earth Blessed by Salvation (25:1–12)
3. Something to Sing About (26:1–27:1)
4. The Overflowing Vineyard (27:2–13)
III. History and Faith (28:1–39:8)
A. Opening Eyes to Reality (28:1–29)
B. Can Jerusalem Be Saved? (29:1–24)
C. Trust and Obey (30:1–31:9)
D. Your Kingdom Come (32:1–20)
E. God Will Be God and the World Will Know It (33:1–24)
F. The Desert and the Garden (34:1–35:10)
G. The Lord Enthroned in Zion (36:1–37:38)
H. Grace from Start to Finish (38:1–39:8)
IV. To Whom Can You Compare God? (40:1–55:13)
A. Is Our God Big Enough? (40:1–31)
B. Seeing the World as God Sees It (41:1–29)
C. Enter the Servant (42:1–25)
D. Grace from Beginning to End (43:1–28)
E. Living God and Dead Idols (44:1–23)
F. The Surprising Shepherd (44:24–45:25)
G. Babylon the Great Has Fallen (46:1–47:15)
H. Standing Firm in Faith or Not Standing at All (48:1–22)
I. The Servant and the Salvation of the World (49:1–26)
J. Israel Complains but the Servant Obeys (50:1–11)
K. Singing on the Way to Zion (51:1–52:12)
L. The Servant Whose Death Destroys Death (52:13–53:12)
M. Rejoicing in the Covenant (54:1–17)
N. Come to the Party (55:1–13)
V. Looking to the New Creation (56:1–66:24)
A. Waiting in Expectation (56:1–8)
B. Two Contrasting Lifestyles (56:9–57:21)
C. False Religion and True Obedience (58:1–14)
D. A Desperate Situation and a Powerful Remedy (59:1–21)
E. The Whole Earth Is Full of His Glory (60:1–22)
F. Grace That Transforms (61:1–11)
G. God’s Passionate Love for Zion (62:1–12)
H. He Is Trampling Out the Vintage (63:1–6)
I. A Passionate Prayer (63:7–64:12)
J. Judgment and Salvation (65:1–25)
K. Then Comes the End (66:1–24)
Isaiah 1