Acts 2:1–47

2:1–4 The Disciples Receive the Spirit. Right from the beginning, Acts 2 is concerned with new structures and dynamics that bring the old structures and dynamics to their appointed end. The chapter occurs at Pentecost, the second annual feast of the Jewish year, celebrating God’s provision for his people. Also known as the Feast of Weeks in the OT (see Lev. 23:15–21; Ex. 34:22; Num. 28:26–31; Deut. 16:9–12), Pentecost came fifty days after Passover. Passover commemorated the coming of the angel of death, the last plague, to Egypt. On that night, the Israelites were told to sacrifice a lamb and spread its blood over their doorpost. The angel, seeing the blood, would pass over the Israelites but would inflict destruction on Egypt by taking its firstborn sons. This could have been avoided had Pharaoh and his court listened to Moses and freed Israel. But they refused and so paid an ultimate price for their sin against God. In the aftermath, the Israelites, having survived because of the lamb’s blood, left Egypt. God redeemed them, as promised.

Fifty days later, Israel was at Sinai, receiving God’s law through Moses. When they entered the land, they were to keep a feast, or festival, in which they were to bring their firstfruits (bread made from new grain) as an offering to God. The firstfruits offering stood both for hope in the coming of the full harvest and as a sign of thanksgiving for God’s provision. Pentecost was inseparable from Passover and was marked specifically from the date of Passover (Lev. 23:16). It could come only as a result of God’s previous work. Thus it was not simply about agriculture but about redemption as well. Israel offered her firstfruits to God, who saved her from slavery in Egypt. The underlying idea in the symbolism of Pentecost was that if God was able to redeem his people from Egypt, then he would be able to provide for their lives too, just as he had promised.

In Acts 2, Jews in Jerusalem are still celebrating Pentecost, but this Pentecost is different. It is, in fact, the last Pentecost. It must be the last, because the final Passover took place fifty days earlier when Jesus, the spotless Lamb of God, was crucified for the sins of God’s people. This was the sacrifice to end all sacrifices (see Heb. 7:27; 9:12, 28; 10:10). Redemption from Egypt, and the Passovers that remembered it, was a shadow of something greater. Passover is fulfilled, and now it is time for the fulfillment of Pentecost. With Jesus now in heaven—a vital point for what follows—this fulfillment is precisely what happens next.

The disciples are together, and something happens that can be explained only by analogy, not from past experience: “Suddenly there came from heaven a sound like a mighty rushing wind,” and “divided tongues as of fire appeared to them and rested on each one of them” (Acts 2:2, 3). The words “like” and “as” are important for understanding Luke’s quintessentially biblical way of describing the scene. Commentators are divided as to whether there was an actual gust of wind accompanied by the sound, or whether there was just a sound. Whether the disciples felt a wind is unimportant. What took place is described not exactly as natural phenomena but “like” it. This is common in Scripture, particularly in texts and passages that describe heavenly scenes or times when the heavenly and earthly realms come together: gates and walls are “like” precious stones, heavenly scenes generally are described as “like” earthly analogies, and visions include things “like” wheels, fiery messengers, or various animals that sometimes combine more than one species. These are attempts to convey supernatural visions and experiences—real, experienced events, but beyond what can be described fully. In this case it sounded something like a great wind. I have an image in my mind of the apostles hearing something like the sound of wind from the inside, with walls and roofs creaking, windows rattling, and the sound of rushing air shaking everything in its path, straining to get past. Maybe to us it would have sounded like an oncoming train.

What is important is what the wind-like sound and the appearance of tongues like fire indicate: both point to the presence of God (cf. 1 Kings 19:11–13). Thus the prophet Ezekiel is led by the Spirit to a vision of dry bones that take on human form and are brought to life when the Spirit commands: “Prophesy to the breath; prophesy, son of man, and say to the breath, Thus says the Lord GOD: Come from the four winds, O breath, and breathe on these slain, that they may live” (Ezek. 37:9). The image is of God’s bringing Israel back from exile, redeeming them as in a new exodus, with this great exception: this time he promises to give them his Spirit (Ezek. 37:14). Likewise, the image of fire in Acts 2 is unmistakable. It may be compared to the Lord’s appearing to Moses in a burning bush (Ex. 3:1–6) or to the people of Israel as a pillar of fire, leading them at night in their desert wanderings (Ex. 14:19–20; Num. 11:25; 12:5; 14:14; 16:42; Deut. 1:33). The fire could also be an echo of Isaiah 6:4–7, where the prophet’s tongue is cleansed with a burning coal.

The presence of God in Acts 2 is also accompanied by an act of God. His presence is confirmed by the direction from which the sound comes: from heaven, the place of God. This is the second time in short order that heaven and earth intersect. Jesus went into heaven; now the Spirit from heaven will invade the earthly realm, filling the apostles for witness.

When the apostles receive the Spirit here, this is not the moment they are “saved” or regenerated. In fact, it is not the first time they receive the Spirit. After his resurrection, Jesus appears to the Eleven and breathes on them, saying, “Receive the Holy Spirit” (John 20:22). They are also, as a result, given authority to forgive sins on his behalf (John 20:23). The reception of the Spirit in Acts 2:2 is for carrying out Jesus’ commission to witness. The apostles’ experience of the Spirit is, by necessity of their era, different than it is for every succeeding generation. This is not to say their experience is totally different or unconnected to the receiving of the Spirit seen after Peter’s sermon, only that this instance is a special equipping for a special group of people.

While he was on earth, Jesus was directly present with his followers, who, even with their obvious shortcomings, did provide evidence of believing in him to whatever extent was possible (“Lord, to whom shall we go? You have the words of eternal life.” “You are the Christ.” “I believe; help my unbelief.”). There is no clean and easy way to determine the exact point in which the disciples became believers in the sense we use the term. They did “believe” when Jesus was alive, but their faith was not complete until the resurrection, just as Christ’s work of redemption was not complete. The disciples were sanctified by the word of Jesus while he was with them (John 13:10; 15:3; 17:17), but they would not receive the Spirit as the power of the risen Christ until after the resurrection (as promised in John 14–17). By historical and experiential necessity, the disciples occupy a different place in salvation history than we do.

In Acts 2:33 Peter says that Jesus “received” the Spirit from the Father specifically for the pouring out received at Pentecost. On the other hand, at 8:17 some Samaritans receive the Spirit when Peter and John lay hands on them. In 10:47, Peter declares that because Cornelius and other Gentiles “received” the Spirit just as Jewish believers did, there is no way to deny them baptism. The Spirit “fell” upon all gathered as Peter spoke, and those with Peter were amazed that the Spirit was “poured out” on the Gentiles just as he was on Jewish believers (10:44–45). Thus it is clear that the language for receiving the Spirit, whether for particular empowerment or for regenerating power, does not consistently distinguish between the work of witness and that of belief. All of these works—apostolic witness, signs and wonders, and regeneration—are entirely the doing of the Spirit. How the Spirit is working and what he is bringing about depends on the context.

The Spirit came and “rested on each one” at Pentecost (2:3). This is an outward manifestation of what is taking place among them, as all those gathered in the room are “filled with the Holy Spirit” (v. 4)—what Jesus promised them at his ascension now takes place. It is impossible to quantify what it means to be “filled with the Holy Spirit.” We should not think of the Spirit as some sort of heavenly gasoline that fills our spiritual tank. Luke seems to be speaking in the sense of capacity (“filling” language), but how do we think of capacity when the receptacles are people and the substance is the Holy Spirit? Can someone be filled a quarter of the way with the Spirit? At what point is one “full” of the Spirit in terms of quantity? Paul tells the Ephesian believers, who already have the Spirit, nevertheless to “be filled with the Spirit” rather than to be drunk on wine (Eph. 5:18).

In his Gospel, Luke uses the word “filled” in the sense of filling to capacity, as when the disciples’ boats are so full of fish that they begin to sink (Luke 5:7), or figuratively, as in “filled with great fear” (Luke 2:9) or “filled with fury” (Luke 6:11). He also uses the term to mean “fulfill” or “end,” as in to reach an appointed conclusion. Zechariah goes back home “when his time of service [as a priest] was ended” (Luke 1:23). The destruction of Jerusalem foretold in the Olivet Discourse is described as “days of vengeance, to fulfill all that is written” (Luke 21:22). Importantly, the angel tells Zechariah that his son, John, “will be filled with the Holy Spirit” (Luke 1:15); Elizabeth sees Mary and is “filled with the Holy Spirit” and begins to praise (Luke 1:41); and Zechariah is, once again, “filled with the Holy Spirit” and begins to prophesy and to praise God for what he is about to do in Israel according to his promises (Luke 1:67).

We find similar texts in Acts as well. Peter is filled by the Spirit and speaks to a crowd (Acts 4:8), and soon after the believers are filled with the Spirit through prayer (4:31). When the seven are chosen to look after the widows among the Greek-speaking Jews, one of their criteria is that they are to be filled with the Spirit (6:3). Ananias tells Paul he will “be filled with the Holy Spirit” (9:17). These texts, along with those in Luke, determine what the phrase means in 2:4 and in Acts generally. In most cases, to be “filled with the Holy Spirit” means to be empowered for service, usually that of proclamation or mission. This does not imply an initial lack but merely communicates a special experience of the Spirit in order to carry out the mission from Jerusalem and Judea to Samaria and the ends of the earth. The Spirit’s work in salvation does not take second place in Acts—reception of the Spirit is the primary reason Gentiles must be baptized and recognized as full-fledged members of the new covenant (15:8–9)—but at Pentecost specifically the disciples are filled with power for the great work of that day.

As a result, those in the room “began to speak in other tongues as the Spirit gave them utterance” (2:4; cf. 10:45–46; 19:6). The meaning of the word translated “tongues” (Gk. glōssai) is disputed. Many Christians understand this verse to mean that the disciples begin to speak in a heavenly language transcending human linguistic structures—unlike any language on earth. In such an interpretation, those who hear the disciples speaking in different languages (2:6) do so because some kind of divine translation is taking place that causes the “tongues” to be heard as languages. Often in this interpretation the miracle of tongues is accompanied by a miracle of hearing. Texts such as 1 Corinthians 13:1, where Paul mentions speaking in the “tongues of men and of angels,” are cited in support (cf. 14:2, 18–23, 27). Others, however, understand the disciples to be speaking in different languages, those represented in the room that day. In this interpretation there is no need for a miracle of hearing. Typically, this reading is accompanied by reading the term “tongues” in the NT as always referring to known human languages. First Corinthians 13:1 does, however, seem to distinguish human and heavenly speech. Pressing glōssai to mean “languages” in every instance in the NT seems strained. A third option is to understand the word “tongues” as being used in the NT both for human languages and for heavenly speech, with both manifestations being works of the Spirit.

At Pentecost the tongues seem to be languages, and thus the miracle is one of speaking, not likely one of hearing. Luke here uses the word apophthengomai (“utterance”; Acts 2:4), which recurs twice more in Acts in regard to speaking God’s word. It is clear that the Spirit empowers the disciples’ speaking, but, as seen in the upcoming verses, there is no similar indication of Spirit-empowered hearing. Throughout Acts (as demonstrated already), the Spirit works in believers to empower them for service. The Spirit does work in unbelievers, but this is part of God’s work of salvation, “having cleansed their hearts by faith” (15:9). Such is why it is important first to establish what “filled” means in this verse before considering the miracle of speaking that follows: it provides the context for understanding this highly disputed text.

2:5–13 The Age of the Spirit Begins. During the major Jewish feasts, the population of Jerusalem would double or even triple. Besides those who lived in Jerusalem and Judea, people from all over the Mediterranean world would make pilgrimage to the feast. This fills the scene in Acts 2 with excitement and jostling, even apart from the miraculous event that would take place that day. In spite of the commotion typical to Pentecost, something so astonishing happens that it gains attention. Suddenly, 120 people begin speaking in foreign languages—people from all over the world hear their native tongues. Even in the hustle and bustle of the feast, a voice in one’s own language would win attention. Pilgrims nearby or walking past hear something very familiar, except that they all hear the same thing in their respective languages (2:6, 8).

The source gets their attention too. Not every single listener would be able to identify the background of the speakers, but enough could. And the word spreads: those speaking are Galileans (2:7). Calling them out as Galileans is probably not a commentary on their educational background and therefore not connected to the council’s later identification of Peter and John as “uneducated” (4:13). The surprise is that a group of people from a known place in Israel, where locals speak Aramaic and Greek, is suddenly speaking multiple other languages and dialects.

The breadth of representation stands out in Luke’s list of nationalities, spanning most of the Roman and Parthian Empires: from Rome to the Caspian Sea in the north and from North Africa to Mesopotamia in the south. The path from Jerusalem to Judea, Samaria, and the ends of the earth begins to be paved at Pentecost. Those mentioned are Jews, but some are proselytes (2:11), Gentiles fully converted to Judaism.

Thus both the fulfillment of the promise to Abraham (Gen. 12:1–3) and the means of that fulfillment begin in earnest here. The nations are gathered, and each hears the “mighty works of God” (Acts 2:11) in its native language. The ultimate “blessing” to the nations is the gospel of Jesus Christ (Matt. 28:19–20; Luke 24:46–49; Gal. 3:8), a blessing carried through his people.

This event, at least implicitly, also overturns and overcomes an ancient curse. Before the promise for the nations made to Abraham in Genesis 12, Scripture records how the nations were separated. As a punishment for ongoing and increasing sinfulness, particularly pride and independence from God, man’s one language was turned into many languages, which created immediate confusion and led to separation into groups and, ultimately, distinct nations (Genesis 10–11). This confusion and separation, fueling the estrangement between human beings that began at the fall (Genesis 3), led to untold and unimaginable war, suffering, and barbarism throughout history. Alexander the Great attempted in the fourth century BC to unite the world through the spread of Greek culture and language. He had some success, providentially creating a common trade language that assisted the spread of the gospel. Humanly speaking, however, the tragedy at Babylon (the Tower of Babel) could not be overcome. Yet the miracle of tongues and the proclamation of the gospel at Pentecost reunites people with a power greater than language or culture, creating a bond that transcends any such barrier. The separation of the human race by language, and all that such separation entailed, is mended by the Spirit. The gospel, empowered by the Spirit, creates one new multiethnic, multilingual, multicultural people of God.

It is unlikely that anyone at Pentecost thought immediately of the Tower of Babel or reflected on its biblical-theological connections; Peter clearly interprets the event from Scripture but does not mention Genesis 11. They do understand, however, that people are miraculously speaking other languages and that native speakers are hearing them—something outside of daily experience is taking place; something of unique significance is happening. For the second time, Luke describes their reaction: “All were amazed and perplexed, saying to one another, ‘What does this mean?’” (Acts 2:12; cf. v. 7). Some, whether because they only hear a confusing blend of words that sound like nonsense or because they refuse to believe their own ears, can only chalk it up to one thing—they accuse the people of being drunk (v. 13). There is no way anyone can know what is taking place, because there is no precedent for this day, no analogue from history. What has happened is so astounding that it defies common description. Only a particular kind of biblical language can even begin to convey the story.

2:14–15 The First Christian Sermon: Let This Be Known. Luke presents here the first and in some ways most important speech in Acts; Peter preaches the first Christian sermon, the first apostolic interpretation of the death and resurrection of Jesus. As noted in the introduction, speeches are central to the book of Acts as they present the basic Christian proclamation, or kerygma, of the early church. As David Peterson points out, these sermons appear in various settings and contain very similar content, but that content is contextualized without compromise for each setting.¹ Peter interprets the astounding events that have taken place this day, and if the events are astounding, the interpretation is even more so. Peter’s proclamation establishes his apostolic authority as he presents the meaning and fulfillment of OT messianic prophecy.

Peter takes the accusation of drunkenness as his cue to step up and “address” the crowd. Luke uses the same word here that he just used for the disciples speaking in tongues: apophthengomai. Paul uses this term when he says to Festus, “I am speaking [apophthengomai] true and rational words” (26:25). In the NT only Luke uses this term, and only at these three times in Acts. The term probably indicates something more pointed than “address”—such as “declare”—as each time it is connected to speaking about the acts of God.

As it is only nine in the morning—the time of the first prayer of the Jewish day—no one is drunk; rather, they are filled with the Spirit. Even though visitors are present from all over the Mediterranean world, Peter addresses the “men of Judea and all who dwell in Jerusalem” (2:14). This is best explained by the fact that he is in Jerusalem, the feast is in Jerusalem, and, most importantly, the crucifixion took place in Jerusalem and the assigned mission begins there. Peter’s introductory words fit thematically in the trajectory of Acts and bear a theologically practical aim. In the course of his sermon, Peter will indict the men of Jerusalem for the death of Jesus (v. 23), and in so doing he indicts Jerusalem, the heart of Judaism, as well. The city’s time as the center of God’s activity has come to an end. That is not an anti-Jewish statement but merely a reality of salvation history. The rejection of Jesus in Jerusalem and Judea is well documented in the Gospels (Matt. 16:21; 20:18; Luke 13:33; John 11:55–57), and the full extent of that rejection plays a part in Peter’s sermon. His goal, however, is not simply to condemn but also to reveal the grievous sin that took place in the city just fifty or so days earlier. Condemnation for the death of Jesus and announcement of the coming judgment of God are meant to drive his listeners to the gospel. This is a consistent pattern in Peter’s early speeches (3:19, 23; cf. comment on 2:37–41 [at v. 40]).

2:16–21 The First Christian Sermon: The Fulfillment of Joel. Peter begins his interpretation of what it means for the disciples to be speaking in all of these languages. This is not merely an attention-grabbing phenomenon but serves as the next act following the crucifixion and resurrection of Jesus. What is more, the prophets foretold this event. Peter steps into an authoritative role as spokesman and authoritative interpreter of the OT. The apostle of the Messiah explains what the messianic prophet meant: what the people have witnessed is exactly what Joel said would happen. Familiarity and modern sensibilities dull our senses for grasping just how astonishing and audacious Peter’s sermon really is. The promises of God for saving his people, sending his Spirit, and taking that blessing to the nations are the core of Peter’s sermon. He looks at the people and says, “This is it. The time has come. The promises are fulfilled.”

Peter’s citation of Joel 2:28–32 includes his authoritative modifications that explicitly link Joel’s prophecy to the event of Pentecost. At the beginning, Peter replaces “afterward” (Joel 2:28) with “in the last days” (Acts 2:17; cf. “in those days,” Joel 3:1). The era of “the last days” has begun. Although some tend to associate “the last days” solely with the time closer to the return of Jesus (under certain interpretations of such passages as 2 Tim. 3:1; 2 Pet. 3:3), the term can refer to the entire period between Pentecost and Jesus’ return (cf. Heb. 1:2). These are not mutually exclusive uses of the phrase—the last days have begun and are leading up to the very day of Christ’s return. This is the perspective of Peter’s application of Joel generally.

The first line of Peter’s citation heralds the fulfillment of one of the OT’s greatest promises: God will pour out his Spirit on everyone. Seminal texts from Jeremiah 31 and Ezekiel 36 likewise hark back to a covenant promise found in the Pentateuch. Deuteronomy 10 contains a recitation of the Lord’s greatness as creator, his sovereign choice of Israel, and his continual love and care. The covenant relationship between the Lord and Israel begins with and absolutely rests on him, but, as a covenant, it contains two sides to the relationship. For their part, the people are to fear, love, serve, and obey the Lord. However, an internal obstacle keeps them from upholding their covenant responsibilities: they lack the right heart to follow and obey the Lord. Circumcision does not make them truly the people of God; it is only a sign. So the Lord tells the people, “Circumcise therefore the foreskin of your heart, and be no longer stubborn” (Deut. 10:16). As Deuteronomy predicts Israel’s failure to do this very thing, it also offers a promise: God will give them the very thing they lack in order to be his true people—a new heart. When he acts once again to rescue them, he will act finally and decisively by re-creating them when he brings them back to the land: “The Lord your God will circumcise your heart and the heart of your offspring, so that you will love the Lord your God with all your heart and with all your soul, that you may live” (Deut. 30:6).

The prophets take up and repeat this promise. Through Ezekiel, God guarantees the exiles not only rescue from Babylon but something even greater—a new heart, cleansed by the Spirit:

I will sprinkle clean water on you, and you shall be clean from all your uncleannesses, and from all your idols I will cleanse you. And I will give you a new heart, and a new spirit I will put within you. And I will remove the heart of stone from your flesh and give you a heart of flesh. And I will put my Spirit within you, and cause you to walk in my statutes and be careful to obey my rules. (Ezek. 36:25–27)

The text of Jeremiah 31 promises the new covenant, with the giving of a new heart at the center. Similar to Joel, Jeremiah refers to the coming days in which God will act on Israel’s behalf. A new covenant will be made with Israel and Judea (cf. “Jerusalem . . . Judea . . . Samaria”; Acts 1:8), but, unlike the old covenant written on stone tablets, “I will put my law within them, and I will write it on their hearts” (Jer. 31:33). The heart promised in Deuteronomy, the heart inscribed with God’s law, will be given through the promised Spirit.

Jeremiah’s prophecy also sheds light on the mention of sons and daughters, young and old men, and male and female servants in Joel: “Your sons and your daughters shall prophesy, and your young men shall see visions, and your old men shall dream dreams; even on my male servants and female servants in those days I will pour out my Spirit, and they shall prophesy” (Acts 2:17–18). The new covenant cuts across all social boundaries, because “they shall all know me, from the least of them to the greatest” (Jer. 31:34). It is not necessarily the case that Joel had Jeremiah in mind—though he may well have—or that Peter intended to find support from Jeremiah—though he likely did—but taken together these passages provide a comprehensive view of the fulfillment of these related new covenant promises. Even if every group mentioned in Joel is not taking part in the Pentecost event, Peter nevertheless has a ready-at-hand text to explain what is happening. The Spirit is being poured out on all, just as God promised. The specific referent of prophecy in Joel is fulfilled through men and women speaking of “the mighty works of God” (Acts 2:11).

The Joel citation then moves to the “not yet” of the last days. There is no clean demarcation between Pentecost and the apocalyptically described events in 2:19–20, because it is all presented as a piece. The outpouring of the Spirit is tightly connected to cosmic upheaval. In fact, the Spirit of the living God coming upon human beings is in many ways more astonishing than dark suns or bloody moons. Verses 19–20 do, however, convey a separate though connected event. The language describes the final day of the last days—most importantly, the judgment of that day. Similar phenomena in the natural world were witnessed at the recent display of God’s judgment at Calvary: the death of Jesus was marked by earthquakes and darkness (Matt. 27:51; Luke 23:44). The Gospel accounts of Jesus’ death generally share language similar to that used by Joel.

Joel’s apocalyptic vision is not localized but final and all-encompassing as God’s ultimate judgment falls on the world. Jesus himself used similar language to describe events leading up to his coming, including “signs in sun and moon and stars” (Luke 21:25). This is a scene of ultimate finality, the end of what began at Pentecost. There is hope, however, as Peter concludes the quotation from Joel by stating, “And it shall come to pass that everyone who calls upon the name of the Lord shall be saved” (Acts 2:21). Remarkably, “the Lord,” Yahweh in Joel 2:32, refers now to Jesus of Nazareth. The OT promises have been expanded into a new covenant, with better promises founded on the Messiah. The stone of stumbling is about to be laid down.

2:22–36 The First Christian Sermon: Jesus Is the Messiah. Peter now addresses the crowd as “men of Israel” and more specifically as those who either were eyewitnesses to Jesus’ ministry and crucifixion or knew of it secondhand (v. 22).² Peter takes advantage of the public character of the life and death of Jesus and links it to what these people have just witnessed. His audience, to a large degree, must know about what happened to Jesus of Nazareth and thus must assume his story to be over. But what they have just witnessed is the ongoing story of Jesus, who not only lives but also reigns as the Davidic king and is the source of the Spirit whose work and presence has just been manifested.

The “mighty works [Gk. dynamesin] and wonders [terasin] and signs [sēmeiois]” associated with Jesus served primarily as proof that God was at work (v. 22). Luke’s Gospel is driven by the premise that what took place in the life and ministry of Jesus was in fact the fulfillment of the OT promises and the establishment of God’s kingdom. For example, in Luke 11:20 (alluding to Ex. 8:19), casting out demons is positive proof of the fact that God’s work and kingdom now centers on Jesus. Such accompanying proofs will continue to serve as witness to the authenticity of the apostolic ministry.

Acts 2:23–24 is commonly associated with the issue of divine sovereignty and human responsibility. Jesus died because it was God’s plan and because those in Peter’s audience crucified him with the help of the Romans (“lawless men”; v. 23). Peter’s point, however, is not to iron out the complexities of sovereignty and responsibility. The Bible in general presents sovereignty and responsibility as a reality, something that is. In this text, for instance, what is clearly presented is God’s sovereignty and his divine use of means to accomplish his will. Jesus’ death occurred on the basis of God’s “definite plan and foreknowledge” and through the actions of the Jewish leaders, who themselves used the Romans as the direct means of crucifixion. Both parties are guilty of murder. Peter is presenting this information not for debate and speculation but for conviction leading to repentance.

Jesus died according to God’s plan, and so too God raised him from the dead—the implication being that this was also part of the plan (v. 24). The grave could not hold him because he is the true King, the promised son of David. This is Peter’s point in citing Psalm 16:8–11 (Acts 2:25–28). Like the Joel text, Psalm 16 is not simply a handy example but according to Peter was pointing all along to the recent events. The apostles do not use Scripture as proof texts to make their point but rather show from Scripture that their teaching is in keeping with such Scripture and is its fulfillment as well. Peter introduces the quote by stating, “For David says concerning him,” indicating that David prophesied the resurrection of the Messiah. He calls David a prophet explicitly in verse 30. Jesus of Nazareth is the “Holy One” who was not abandoned in the underworld but knows “the paths of life” and is in the presence of God (vv. 27–28; cf. vv. 31–33). David was not talking ultimately about himself—how could he have been? Peter’s hearers all know David is dead and where his tomb is located (v. 29). The apostle draws explicit parallels from Psalm 16 to Jesus (table 2.1).