Introduction to 1 Peter

Throughout the nearly two millennia of its existence, the church of Jesus Christ has been no stranger to suffering. The clash of truth with error, of the kingdom of light with the kingdom of darkness, and of the children of God with the children of the devil inevitably results in severe conflict. Opposition, rejection, ostracism, scorn, contempt, persecution, even martyrdom have been the lot of believers through the centuries. That the evil world system vents its fury on the church should surprise no one, for that is how it treated the Lord Jesus Christ. Describing the persecution His followers would experience, Jesus pointed out the axiomatic truth, “A disciple is not above his teacher, nor a slave above his master. It is enough for the disciple that he become like his teacher, and the slave like his master. If they have called the head of the house Beelzebul, how much more will they malign the members of his household!” (Matt. 10:24–25).

Centuries before His birth, Isaiah predicted that Christ would be “despised and forsaken of men, a man of sorrows and acquainted with grief” (Isa. 53:3). The apostle John noted His rejection by the sinful world: “He was in the world, and the world was made through Him, and the world did not know Him. He came to His own, and those who were His own did not receive Him” (John 1:10–11). Jesus plainly told the disciples that He was going to suffer and be killed. Matthew 16:21 records that “Jesus began to show His disciples that He must go to Jerusalem, and suffer many things from the elders and chief priests and scribes, and be killed, and be raised up on the third day” (cf. 17:12; Mark 8:31; 9:12; Luke 9:22; 17:25; 22:15; 24:26, 46; Acts 1:3; 3:18; 17:3; 26:23; Heb. 2:10, 18; 5:8; 13:12; 1 Peter 1:11; 2:21, 23; 4:1; 5:1).

Unable to attack Jesus after His ascension, the enemies of the truth assaulted His followers. Stung by its phenomenal growth, the Jewish authorities desperately and futilely tried to stamp out the newly formed church. Acts 4:1–3 records that

The next day the Sanhedrin ordered them to stop preaching in the name of Jesus (4:5–21). Undaunted, the apostles continued to preach the gospel, and as a result, “the high priest rose up, along with all his associates (that is the sect of the Sadducees), and they were filled with jealousy. They laid hands on the apostles and put them in a public jail” (5:17–18). Miraculously released from the jail, they went to the temple and resumed preaching the gospel (5:19–25). Hauled before the Sanhedrin a second time, the apostles were once again ordered to stop preaching in the name of Jesus—a threat punctuated this time with a beating (5:26–40). The bold, powerful preacher Stephen faced opposition (6:9–11), arrest, trial before the Sanhedrin (6:12–7:56), and martyrdom (7:57–60). The first persecution aimed at the church as a whole broke out following Stephen’s martyrdom (8:1–4; 9:1–2; 11:19). It was spearheaded by the young Jewish firebrand, Saul of Tarsus, who would become the apostle Paul. Later the wicked King Herod killed James the brother of John and arrested Peter—only to see the latter miraculously freed from jail by an angel (12:1–11).

Following his dramatic conversion while en route to Damascus (9:3–18), Paul, once the church’s most vicious persecutor, became its most zealous missionary. The Lord set the course of his ministry when He told Ananias, “I will show him how much he must suffer for My name’s sake” (Acts 9:16). And suffer he did, almost from the very moment of his conversion (cf. Acts 9:20–25). As he traveled throughout the Roman Empire boldly proclaiming the faith he had once tried to destroy (Gal. 1:23), Paul faced continual affliction and unrelenting opposition (Acts 14:5–6, 19–20; 16:16–40; 17:5–9, 13–14, 18, 32; 18:12–17; 19:9, 21–41; 20:3, 22–23; 21:27–36; 23:12–24:9; 25:10–11; 27:1–28:28; cf. 1 Thess. 2:2; 2 Tim. 1:12; 2:9–10; 3:11). Not surprisingly, suffering is a major theme in his epistles (e.g., Rom. 8:17–18; 2 Cor. 1:5–7; Phil. 1:29; 3:8–10; 1 Thess. 2:14; 2 Thess. 1:5; 2 Tim. 1:8; 2:3).

As time went on, the persecution of the church became more organized, widespread, and barbaric. What began as the isolated acts of the Jewish authorities, or Jewish and Gentile mobs, gradually evolved into the official policy of the Roman government, which saw the refusal of Christians to participate in the state religion as a form of rebellion. Three centuries of increasingly savage and widespread persecutions culminated early in the fourth century in Emperor Diocletian’s all-out effort to stamp out the church. In a startling reversal of this, Emperor Constantine in A.D. 313, along with the ruler of the eastern part of the Empire, Licinius, issued the edict of Milan, which granted full toleration to the Christian faith.

Under the Roman Catholic Church, which replaced Imperial Rome as the dominant power during the Middle Ages, persecution broke out anew. The horrors of the Inquisition, the St. Bartholomew’s Day Massacre, and the martyrdoms of men like Jan Hus, Hugh Latimer, Nicholas Ridley, Thomas Cranmer, and William Tyndale epitomized the Roman Church’s effort to exterminate the gospel of Jesus Christ. More recently, Christians have been brutally repressed by communist and Islamic regimes all over the world.

As Peter penned this epistle, the dark clouds of the first great outbreak of official persecution, instigated by the insane Emperor Nero, were already gathering on the horizon. Seeking scapegoats to divert the public’s suspicion that he had started the great fire of July, A.D. 64 that devastated Rome, Nero pinned the blame on the Christians, whom he already perceived as enemies of Rome because they would worship none but Christ. As a result, they were encased in wax and burned at the stake to light his gardens, crucified, and thrown to wild beasts. Though the official persecution apparently was confined to the vicinity of Rome, attacks on Christians undoubtedly spread unchecked by the authorities to other parts of the Empire. It was as a result of Nero’s persecution that both Peter and Paul were martyred. But before he died, Peter wrote this magnificent epistle to believers whose suffering would soon intensify. Throughout the centuries, beleaguered Christians have benefited from the apostle’s wise counsel and gentle, encouraging words of comfort.

AUTHOR

Peter was the acknowledged leader and spokesman of the Twelve; his name heads all four New Testament lists of the apostles (Matt. 10:2–4; Mark 3:16–19; Luke 6:13–16; Acts 1:13). Peter and his brother Andrew (who introduced him to Jesus [John 1:40–42]) ran a fishing business on the Sea of Galilee (Matt. 4:18; Luke 5:1–3). They were originally from the village of Bethsaida (John 1:44), but later moved to the larger nearby town of Capernaum (Mark 1:21, 29). The brothers’ business was a successful one, which allowed them to own a spacious house in Capernaum (Mark 1:29, 32–33; Luke 4:38). Peter was married; Jesus healed his mother-in-law (Luke 4:38–39); and his wife accompanied him on his missionary travels (1 Cor. 9:5).

Peter’s birth name was Simon, a common name in first-century Palestine. (There are eight other Simons mentioned in the New Testament: Simon the Zealot [Matt. 10:4]; Simon the half brother of the Lord [Matt. 13:55]; Simon the leper [Matt. 26:6]; Simon of Cyrene, who was drafted to carry Jesus’ cross [Matt. 27:32], Simon the Pharisee, at whose home Jesus ate a meal [Luke 7:36–40]; Simon, the father of Judas Iscariot [John 6:71]; Simon the magician [Acts 8:9–24]; and Simon the tanner, with whom Peter stayed in Joppa [Acts 9:43].) Peter’s full name was Simon Barjona (Matt. 16:17), literally “Simon son of Jonas” (or John; cf. John 1:42). At their first meeting, Jesus named him Cephas (John 1:42; cf. 1 Cor. 1:12; 3:22; 9:5; 15:5; Gal. 1:18; 2:9, 11, 14), which is Aramaic for “rock”; “Peter” is its Greek equivalent (John 1:42).

Peter was sometimes called “Simon” in secular or neutral settings (e.g., in reference to his house [Mark 1:29; Luke 4:38], his mother-in-law [Mark 1:30; Luke 4:38], or his business [Luke 5:3, 10]). At such times, the use of the name had no spiritual implications. But more significantly, Peter was called “Simon” to mark the key failures in his life—those times when he was acting like his unregenerate self.

In Matthew 17:24–25 he confidently assured the tax collectors that Jesus would pay the two-drachma tax levied for the upkeep of the temple. Reminding him that as God’s Son, He was exempt from paying the tax, Jesus addressed Peter as “Simon” (v. 25). Grieved at Peter’s inability to stay awake with Him during His agony in Gethsemane, Jesus said to him, “Simon, are you asleep? Could you not keep watch for one hour?” (Mark 14:37). After using his fishing boat as a platform from which to teach the crowds, Jesus said to Peter, “Put out into the deep water and let down your nets for a catch” (Luke 5:4). Peter was skeptical and hesitant to follow the Lord’s advice; after all, Jesus was a rabbi, not a fisherman. No doubt somewhat exasperated, “Simon answered and said, ‘Master, we worked hard all night and caught nothing, but I will do as You say and let down the nets’” (v. 5). The staggering haul of fish that resulted from his obedience (vv. 6–7) opened Simon’s eyes to the reality of Jesus’ deity, so Luke called him by his new name: “Simon Peter … fell down at Jesus’ feet, saying, ‘Go away from me Lord, for I am a sinful man, O Lord!’” (v. 8). Following a heated debate among the Twelve as to which of them was the greatest, Jesus warned proud, overconfident Peter of his impending betrayal: “Simon, Simon, behold, Satan has demanded permission to sift you like wheat” (Luke 22:31).

After the resurrection, Jesus called Peter “Simon” for the last time. Tired of waiting for the Lord to appear (Matt. 28:7), Peter impulsively announced, “I am going fishing” (John 21:3). Dutifully following their leader, the rest of the disciples “said to him, ‘We will also come with you’” (v. 3). But those whom Jesus called to be fishers of men (Matt. 4:19) were not allowed to revert to being catchers of fish, “and that night they caught nothing” (John 21:3). The next morning Jesus met the unsuccessful crew on the shore, where He prepared breakfast for them. Afterward, Jesus asked Peter three times, “Simon, son of John, do you love Me?” (John 21:15–17), and three times he affirmed his love for the Lord.

A few weeks later, the Holy Spirit descended on Peter and the rest of the apostles, and from then on the “Rock” lived up to his name. He took the lead in finding a replacement for Judas Iscariot (Acts 1:15–26), fearlessly preached the gospel (2:14–40; 3:12–26), performed miraculous healings (3:1–9; 5:12–16), boldly confronted the Jewish authorities (4:8–20), and unhesitatingly disciplined sinning church members (5:1–11). It was Peter who confronted Simon the magician, bluntly telling him, “May your silver perish with you, because you thought you could obtain the gift of God with money!” (Acts 8:20). It was through Peter’s ministry that the doors of the church were thrown open to the Gentiles (Acts 10:1–11:18).

After his appearance at the Jerusalem Council (Acts 15:7–12), Peter all but disappears from the historical record of the New Testament until he wrote his epistles. From Paul’s account of their confrontation, it is evident that Peter visited Antioch (Gal. 2:11–21), and the reference to the Peter faction at Corinth (1 Cor. 1:12) suggests he may have visited that city as well. As noted above, Paul alluded to Peter’s missionary travels in 1 Corinthians 9:5, but the extent of those travels is not known. That the apostle addressed 1 Peter to churches in specific regions of Asia Minor (see the discussion below under “Destination and Readers”) may indicate that he had preached in those regions.

The strong tradition of the early church places Peter in Rome at the close of his life. He evidently was not there when Paul wrote Romans (c. A.D. 57), since his name does not appear in the list of people Paul greeted (Rom. 16:1–15). Nor is it likely that Peter was in Rome during Paul’s first imprisonment, since he is not mentioned in the Prison Epistles (Ephesians, Philippians, Colossians, Philemon), which were written at that time. Peter most likely arrived in Rome after Paul’s release from his first Roman imprisonment. It was there that he, like Paul, suffered martyrdom in connection with Nero’s persecution. Since Nero died in A.D. 68, Peter’s crucifixion upside down, as tradition holds, undoubtedly occurred before that date.

Despite the circulation of forgeries purporting to be written by Peter (e.g., the Gospel of Peter, the Acts of Peter, and the Apocalypse of Peter), the early church never doubted that the apostle penned 1 Peter. The earliest affirmation of that comes in 2 Peter, which Peter himself described as the second letter he had addressed to his readers (2 Peter 3:1). There are echoes of 1 Peter’s words and phrases in such late first-and early second-century writings as the Epistle of Barnabas, the First Epistle of Clement (which uses several Greek words found nowhere in the New Testament except 1 Peter), the Shepherd of Hermas, and the Letters of Ignatius. The earliest extant work that actually quotes from 1 Peter is Polycarp’s Epistle to the Philippians, likely written in the second decade of the second century. In the middle of the second century, Justin Martyr may have known of 1 Peter; in the late second and early third centuries, Irenaeus, Tertullian, and Clement of Alexandria definitely attributed 1 Peter to the apostle Peter. Summarizing the early church’s view of 1 Peter’s authenticity, the fourth-century church historian Eusebius of Caesarea wrote, “As to the writings of Peter, one of his epistles called the first is acknowledged as genuine. For this was anciently used by the ancient fathers in their writings, as an undoubted work of the apostle” (Ecclesiastical History 3.3).

But despite the clear testimony of the early church, modern unbelieving skeptics, as they do with most of the rest of the New Testament books, deny the authenticity of 1 Peter. Some see in it a slavish dependence on the writings of Paul, and argue that could not have characterized a genuine writing of Peter, who was himself an eminent apostle. It is true that Peter was familiar with at least some of Paul’s writings, since he refers to them in 2 Peter 3:16. Yet the similarities between 1 Peter and Paul’s epistles are not so great as to demand literary dependence, especially between two men who taught the same apostolic truth (cf. Acts 2:42). E. G. Selwyn wisely cautions,

Others argue that Peter, a companion of Jesus, would have included more personal reminiscences of the Lord in his epistle. But it is precisely the presence of such reminiscences in 2 Peter that causes critics to reject its authenticity (cf. 2 Peter 1:16–18; 3:2). They cannot have it both ways. Nor are such reminiscences entirely lacking in 1 Peter (5:1; cf. 5:2 with John 21:16; 5:5 with John 13:3–5). In a related theme, 1 Peter contains striking parallels to Peter’s sermons recorded in Acts (cf. 1:10–12 with Acts 3:18; 1:17 with Acts 10:34; 1:20 with Acts 2:23; 1:21 with Acts 2:32; 2:4, 7 with Acts 4:11; 3:22 with Acts 2:33; 4:5 with Acts 10:42; the use of xulon [“cross”; lit., “wood”] in 2:24 and Acts 5:30 and 10:39).

Another argument advanced by those who reject Petrine authorship is that the persecution in view in 1 Peter took place under the Emperor Trajan (A.D. 98–117). That, of course, was well after Peter’s lifetime, and thus he could not be the author of this epistle. They note that Pliny, Roman governor of Bithynia, wrote to Emperor Trajan, asking in part “whether the name [Christian] itself, even if innocent of crime, should be punished, or only the crimes attaching to that name” (cited in Henry Bettenson, Documents of the Christian Church [London: Oxford Univ., 1967], 3). They see that as the background for Peter’s admonition, “but if anyone suffers as a Christian, he is not to be ashamed, but is to glorify God in this name” (4:16). But the concept of suffering for the name of Christ was not new to 1 Peter; it was introduced by Jesus Himself. In Mark 13:13 He warned His followers, “You will be hated by all because of My name.” After being beaten by the Sanhedrin, the apostles “went on their way from the presence of the Council, rejoicing that they had been considered worthy to suffer shame for His name” (Acts 5:41; cf. 9:16; Matt. 5:11; 10:22; 24:9).

But the most telling argument for those who reject 1 Peter’s authenticity is the linguistic one. A simple Galilean fisherman whose native language was Aramaic, they insist, could not have written the smooth, polished Greek of 1 Peter—especially a man described in Acts 4:13 as “uneducated and untrained.” A corollary argument is that Peter, not a native speaker of Greek, would not have quoted from the Septuagint, as the writer of 1 Peter does.

There are good responses to each of those allegations. First, some have exaggerated the classical affinities of the Greek of 1 Peter. Second, the epistle contains Semitic expressions consistent with Peter’s Jewish background. Third, Peter was from Galilee, which even in Isaiah’s day was known as “Galilee of the Gentiles” (Isa. 9:1). Greek, along with Aramaic and Hebrew, was commonly spoken throughout Palestine (Robert L. Thomas and Stanley N. Gundry, A Harmony of the Gospels [Chicago: Moody, 1979], 309ff.). That was especially true in Galilee, where Hellenistic influence was strong, and which area was near the Gentile region known as the Decapolis. As a businessman in Galilee, Peter would almost certainly have been fluent in Greek. In addition, Peter (Acts 15:14) and his fellow Galileans Andrew and Philip had Greek names. Matthew and James, also Galileans, wrote New Testament books in excellent Greek. Fourth, Peter penned this epistle after three decades of traveling and ministering among largely Greek-speaking people, which would have given him even greater proficiency in Greek. Fifth, it was only natural for Peter to quote the Septuagint, since that was the version most of his readers were familiar with. Sixth, the phrase “uneducated and untrained” in Acts 4:13 does not mean that Peter was illiterate, but rather that he was a layman, with no rabbinic training (cf. John 7:15). Nor are scholars the only ones capable of producing literary masterpieces; for example, John Bunyan, author of one of the greatest works in the English language, Pilgrim’s Progress, was a humble tinker (one who repaired household utensils). Finally, it was common for ancient writers to use an amanuensis, or secretary, to assist them in writing their books. Though he was a highly educated scholar (Acts 26:24), Paul made use of such an amanuensis (Rom. 16:22; cf. 1 Cor. 16:21; Col. 4:18; 2 Thess. 3:17). Peter also used one in writing 1 Peter, dictating his letter to Silvanus (5:12), who may have, under Peter’s supervision, smoothed out the apostle’s literary style.

Those who deny Peter’s authorship allege that 1 Peter was either an anonymous letter that his name somehow became attached to, or else the pseudepigraphical work of a “pious forger, ” who attached Peter’s name to his letter in an attempt to invest it with apostolic authority. But such specious claims are fraught with overwhelming difficulties. Those who claim the letter was originally anonymous argue that its introduction and conclusion were added later to make it appear as if Peter had written it. But it is hard to imagine how a letter that had been circulating anonymously could suddenly have had Peter’s name added to it without raising suspicions in the churches to which it was addressed. Nor is there any ancient manuscript evidence that 1 Peter ever circulated without its introduction and conclusion.

Another version of the “pious forger” view holds that an individual used Peter’s name, not to deceive, but as a harmless literary device his readers would have understood. But that theory fares no better, as Donald Guthrie notes:

The claim that pseudonymity was an accepted literary device is also false; the early church did not approve of so-called pious forgeries. Paul warned of false letters purporting to come from him (2 Thess. 2:2), and he took steps to authenticate his letters (1 Cor. 16:21; Col. 4:18 cf.; 2 Thess. 3:17). The church father Tertullian wrote of a church leader who was removed from office for forging a document in Paul’s name, although he did it out of love for Paul (On Baptism, XVII; The Ante-Nicene Fathers [reprint; Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1973], 3:677). D. A. Carson, Douglas J. Moo, and Leon Morris caution that “we should not approach the New Testament epistles as though it were common for the early Christians to write letters in a name not their own. As far as our knowledge goes, there is not one such letter emanating from the Christians from anywhere near the New Testament period” (An Introduction to the New Testament [Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1992], 368. For a thorough discussion of the issue of pseudonymity, see pp. 367–71; see also Thomas R. Schreiner, 1, 2 Peter, Jude, The New American Commentary [Nashville: Broadman & Holman, 2003], 270–73).

Despite the cavils of the critics, the evidence strongly supports the letter’s own claim to have been written by “Peter, an apostle of Jesus Christ” (1:1).

DESTINATION AND READERS

Peter addressed his epistle to Christians residing in “Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia, Asia, and Bithynia” (1:1), regions within the Roman Empire that are now part of Turkey. The order in which they are named may reflect the route the bearer of the letter (Silvanus; 5:12) took when he delivered it. It is not known for certain how the gospel spread to those regions. Paul ministered in at least part of Galatia and Asia, but there is no record of his evangelistic work in Pontus, Cappadocia, or Bithynia. In fact, he was forbidden by the Holy Spirit from entering Bithynia (Acts 16:7). It may be that Paul’s converts founded some of the churches (cf. Acts 19:10, 26). And others may have been founded by those who were converted on the day of Pentecost (cf. Acts 2:9). Peter also may have ministered in those regions, though there is no record of that in Acts. The congregations consisted primarily of Gentiles (cf. 1:14, 18; 2:9–10; 4:3–4), but undoubtedly included some Jewish Christians as well.

DATE AND PLACE OF WRITING

Three possible locations have been suggested for the “Babylon” from which Peter wrote (5:13). Some argue for the ancient city of Babylon in Mesopotamia, but that region was sparsely populated in Peter’s day. It is unlikely that he, Mark, and Silvanus would all have been there at the same time. Others point to a Babylon on the Nile River in Egypt. It, however, was little more than a Roman military outpost, and again it is highly improbable that Peter (along with Mark and Silvanus) would have taken up residence there. “Babylon” is most likely a cryptic name for Rome, chosen because of the Imperial capital’s debauchery and idolatry (which will characterize the Babylon of the end times; cf. Rev. 17, 18). With persecution looming on the horizon, Peter took care not to endanger the Christians in Rome, who might have faced further difficulties if his letter had been discovered by the Roman authorities. The strong association of Peter with Rome in early tradition further supports the view that the apostle wrote 1 Peter from Rome.

The most probable date for 1 Peter is just before Nero’s persecution, which followed the great fire that ravaged Rome in the summer of A.D. 64. The absence of any reference to martyrdom makes it less likely that the epistle was written after the persecution began, since numerous Christians would by then have been put to death.

THEME AND PURPOSE

Peter’s expressed purpose in writing his epistle was that his readers would stand firm in the true grace of God (5:12) in the face of escalating persecution and suffering. To that end he reminded them of their election and the sure hope of their heavenly inheritance, delineated the privileges and blessings of knowing Christ, gave them instruction on how to conduct themselves in a hostile world, and pointed them to the example of Christ’s suffering. Peter wanted his readers to live triumphantly in the midst of hostility without abandoning hope, becoming bitter, losing faith in Christ, or forgetting His second coming. When they are obedient to God’s Word despite the world’s antagonism, Christians’ lives will testify to the truth of the gospel (2:12; 3:1, 13–17).

OUTLINE

Salutation (1:1–2)

1. Suffering Christians Should Remember Their Great Salvation (1:3–2:10)

   1. The Certainty of Their Salvation (1:3–12)

      1. It is preserved by the power of God (1:3–5)

      2. It is proven by the trials from God (1:6–9)

      3. It was predicted by the prophets of God (1:10–12)

   2. The Consequences of Their Salvation (1:13–2:10)

      1. The priority of holiness (1:13–23)

      2. The power of the Word (1:24–2:3)

      3. The priesthood of believers (2:4–0)

2. Suffering Christians Should Remember Their Example Before Men (2:11–4:6)

   1. Living Honorably Before Unbelievers (2:11–3:7)

      1. Submission in the civic realm (2:11–17)

      2. Submission in the workplace (2:18–25)

      3. Submission in the family (3:1–7)

   2. Living Honorably Before Believers (3:8–12)

   3. Living Honorably in the Midst of Suffering (3:13–4:6)

      1. The principle of suffering for righteousness (3:13–17)

      2. The paragon of suffering for righteousness (3:18–22)

      3. The purpose of suffering for righteousness (4:1–6)

3. Suffering Christians Should Remember Their Lord Will Return (4:7–5:11)

   1. The Responsibilities of Christian Living (4:7–11)

   2. The Reality of Christian Suffering (4:12–19)

   3. The Requirements for Christian Leadership (5:1–4)

   4. The Realization of Christian Victory (5:5–11)

Conclusion (5:12–14)