Introduction to Joel

WESTERN ECONOMIES, WHICH depend largely on manufacturing, service, and technology, react strongly to market fluctuations. The stock market plays a significant role by indicating the public face of economic health. Vacillations in it not only reflect but also affect the entire economy.

This is not the case in every society, however. For example, in more agriculturally based societies, such as in North America before the Industrial Revolution or in the ancient Near East during the period of the Old Testament, other factors play into economic fortune or failure. Events that affect crops or herds precipitate economic weal or woe. Timely, sufficient rainfall aid crop production, while blight or drought cripples it.

A disastrous event for agriculturalist and pastoralist alike is an infestation of locusts. When they hatch and swarm, they can be as dense as four to five thousand insects per square meter, and they strip all green foliage, destroying crops and trees.1 This then depletes the next season’s fodder for livestock as well as grain for the family larder. With no large-scale ability to stockpile supplies, such an event places nations in grave peril.

This is the situation driving Joel’s prophecy. His hearers know and fear agricultural calamities. Such things also serve as the metaphorical vehicle to symbolize another rapacious catastrophe, an invading enemy army. The prophet plays off these two events in his prophecies. He likens the two events as both being catastrophic, but also as times in which Yahweh restores his people’s fortunes.

This kind of hope in the face of catastrophe is not one that sits well with many Christians today. A “health and wealth gospel” understands blessing as flowing inevitably from a right relationship with God, while suffering indicates a breach in one’s relationship with him. Joel gives a different take on this. He does not imply that blessing means elimination of obstacles and pain, but rather that God’s presence, bringing one through these events, which are a natural concomitant to all human existence, is where blessing really resides.

Joel the Person

THE STATED WRITER of these prophecies is Joel, whose name means “Yah[weh] is God.” While a ringing affirmation of faith at any time, it is an especially appropriate name during a period when Baalism was making inroads into Israel, evidence for which is suggested by some.2 Since religious syncretism was a constant threat to God’s people from the time of the Conquest to at least the time of Josiah (640–609 B.C.; 2 Kings 23:4–5) and possibly even until the postexilic period (Zech. 12:11), the name does not provide much interpretational help. It is used in the Old Testament during this entire time period.3 The only other identifying feature of Joel is his father’s name, Pethuel, which is otherwise unknown.

From internal evidence, Joel is a man of all the people. He announces suffering for all levels of society, from leader to common field laborer. All suffer, but also all will be blessed and restored. This extends not only throughout the various social strata, but also through divisions of age and sex (cf. Joel 2:28–29). Joel’s announcements are tinged more with empathy than with condemnation. He lays little blame for the situation on God’s people (five times referring to them as “my people”: 2:26–27); rather, he offers them the hope arising from judgment against their oppressors.

Geopolitical Context

THE PROPHECIES OF JOEL are directed toward Judah (3:1, 6, 8, 18, 19, 20) and Jerusalem (2:32; 3:1, 6, 16, 17, 20). “Israel” is mentioned only three times, once indicating the northern kingdom that has already been exiled (3:2) and twice referring to the entire nation, including and perhaps being coterminous with Judah (2:27; 3:16). Holy sites such as the temple (“the house of the LORD,” 1:9, 14; cf. 2:17; “the house of your/our God,” 1:13, 16); and “Zion” (2:1, 15, 23, 32; 3:16, 17, 21) are frequent, while there is no reference to any strictly northern Israelite sites. Unlike other prophets such as Amos, where both Israel and Judah find a place, Joel reserves his comments for Judah.

An unidentified army threatens Judah (Joel 2:1–11), while other peoples are explicitly identified in 3:4–8, raising the prophecies onto the world stage. The three enemies of Judah—Tyre, Sidon, and the “regions of Philistia” (3:4)—sell Judeans to the Ionians (Greeks, 3:6) and are themselves sold to the Sabaeans (3:8). Tyre is an island city on the Phoenician coast in what is now Lebanon, about twenty-five miles south of Sidon. An ancient town, it is known from Egyptian, Assyrian, and Ugaritic sources as well as later, classical sources. It was connected to the mainland by a causeway under Alexander the Great in 332 B.C. In the tenth century B.C., its rulers befriended Israel (e.g., 2 Sam. 5:11; 1 Kings 5), but later the relationship degenerated (e.g., Amos 1:9–11), culminating with Tyrian celebration when Jerusalem fell to Babylon, and she was able to benefit from Judah’s demise (Ezek. 26:1).

Sidon to the north is also an ancient coastal city mentioned in early extrabiblical sources, including some coins identifying it as the “mother of Tyre.”4 It experienced conflict with Israel as early as the judges period (Judg. 10:12) and was taken by Babylon at the same time that Jerusalem fell (cf. Jer. 25:22; 27:3; 47:4). The last reference indicates that Tyre and the Philistines would fall at the same time.

The five cities of Philistia (Gaza, Ashkelon, Ashdod, Ekron, and Gath) are situated further south on the Mediterranean coastline to the west of the Dead Sea. The settlers in the region apparently originated in the Aegean Sea area and arrived from the west and north at almost the same time as the Israelites moved into the land from the south and west. Conflict between the two peoples vying for the same territory was fierce, as reflected in Judges and throughout the life of David, who was able to subdue them (1 Sam. 17; 18:6–9, 25–27, 30; 19:8), though conflict was not eliminated (cf. 1 Kings 15:27; 16:15; 2 Chron. 21:16–17). Subdued by Assyria and Babylonia, the Philistines became a Persian colony, losing their own identity.5

The two other nations received exiles. Judeans and Jerusalemites ended up among the Ionians (Joel 3:6, “Greeks”; Heb. y^ewānîm). Mention is first made of the eponymous ancestor Javan (yāwān), a descendant of Japheth, in the Table of Nations (Gen. 10:2, 4; cf. 1 Chron. 1:5), but the nation itself is only mentioned in later biblical texts (Isa. 66:19; Ezek. 27:13, 19; Zech. 9:13; Dan. 8:21; 10:20; 11:2). Although it reached its greatest dominance over the region during the Hellenistic period (338–146 B.C.), Greece had contacts and influence in Israel from at least the seventh century B.C.6 Nothing of this Greek human trade receives mention elsewhere in Scripture, but slavery formed a noticeable part of the Greek economy.7

The nations exploiting Judah were themselves to be sold to the Sabaeans, “a nation far away” (Joel 3:8), whose eponymous ancestor is also first encountered in the Table of Nations as a descendant of Shem (“Sheba” in Gen. 10:28; cf. 1 Chron. 1:22). They are a south Arabian nation with diplomatic relations with Israel as early as the tenth century B.C., when their queen visited Solomon (1 Kings 10; 2 Chron. 9). Both the Greeks and the Sabaeans are far removed from the everyday life of Judah, so exile to these locations may be a way of saying that people end up in the back of beyond.

Finally, two nations, Egypt and Edom, suffer as a result of their violence against Judah (Joel 3:19). Egypt is one of the regional superpowers, gaining and losing control over Israel repeatedly.8 Israel lies on the natural land routes between Egypt and her neighbors to the north and east, so military campaigns from or against Egypt naturally proceeded through Israel, with accompanying depredations from most who stormed through. A backward look at previous Egypt-Israel relationships could look to many periods, while reference to the future destruction could refer to that done by Assyria in the late eighth century B.C., Babylonia in the late seventh-early sixth centuries, or Persia in the mid-sixth century.

The history of interaction between Judah and her eastern neighbor Edom is riddled with animosity, perhaps culminating at the destruction of Jerusalem, but by no means only starting there (see the commentary on Obadiah in this volume). This animosity continued until at least 553 B.C., when Babylon captured Edom.9 It may well have continued beyond this time among the remnants of the Edomites, but their history during the Persian and Hellenistic periods is not well known.10

Chronological Context

THERE IS NO direct evidence from the book itself to determine its historical setting conclusively, though circumstantial evidence has been mined for assistance. Its position toward the beginning of the Minor Prophets, between two prophets dated to the eighth century, has led some to place it early in the history of Israelite prophecy.11 The LXX, however, associates Joel with the later Obadiah and Jonah, so chronology cannot be the deciding factor in both cases. The reasons for the relative position of books within the canon are unclear, so they provide no compelling proof. It is probable that matters of content rather than chronology (cf. the discussion of Joel 3:16, 18 and their ties to Amos 1:2; 9:13) led to Joel’s placement before Amos.12

References to Judah (Joel 3:1, 6, 8, 18, 19) outnumber those to Israel (2:27; 3:2, 16). At least one reference to “Israel” (3:2) indicates that the northern nation of Israel was already exiled, placing the prophecies after the fall of Israel and its capital, Samaria, in 722 B.C. The term “Israel” can apply, however, to the entire nation, including Judah, as it seems to do in 2:27 and 3:16. If so, the prophecies concern either the period after the loss of territory and increased tribute to Assyria exacted in 701 B.C. (2 Kings 18:13–16), after the defeat and exile in 598/597 B.C. under the Neo-Babylonian Empire (2 Kings 24:10–16; 2 Chron. 36:6; Jer. 36:30), or even after the destruction of Jerusalem and the temple in 587 B.C.

Weighing against the latter interpretation is reference to an existing “house of the LORD” or the temple where people minister before him (Joel 1:9, 13, 14, 16; 2:17). This rules out the period from 586–516/515 B.C., between its destruction and rebuilding under the leadership of Zerubbabel (cf. Haggai, Zechariah). A preexilic period might be preferred, since the temple destruction is anticipated and prayed against (2:17) rather than remembered, as it would have been after 587, though there are undoubtedly such prayers also brought for the Second Temple, rebuilt under Ezra.

Crenshaw suggests a later date since “the reference to the captivity (3:2 [3:2]) and deportation of Jewish children (3:3 [3:3]) exclude a time before the fall of Jerusalem. Furthermore, the animosity toward Edom (3:19 [3:19]) is best explained in connection with the events of 586, when fleeing Judeans were turned over to the Babylonians by neighboring Edomites.”13 Neither point is compelling for an exilic or postexilic date, though they do allow it. Capture and deportation were all too familiar to Judah from long experience, as already noted, and Edom’s and Egypt’s destruction is anticipated in 3:19 (see Obadiah, who also prophesies concerning Edom).

Joel looks back on Judah’s mistreatment by several enemies: Tyre, Sidon, and Philistia (3:4), who sell captives to the Greeks (Ionians, 3:6) and themselves end up in the hands of the Sabaeans (3:8). No specific biblical reference is made to any of these events, so they do not help in determining the date of the events described. This is exacerbated since there is in each case a long history of animosity between Judah and these nations, and capture of prisoners for trade as slaves was a common element of ancient war.

The prophet makes frequent use of material from other prophets, and that might prove more useful in determining at least a relative date of the book. In some cases it is not clear in which way the borrowing went, but that is not the case in Joel 2:32. There, in quoting Obadiah 17a, Joel uses the quotation formula “as the LORD has said.” There are a number of other cases of prophetic allusion in the small book. These include the following (Joel references are listed first, without a book designation):

Meier makes the useful observation that “since much of the prophetic output is no longer available, it is difficult to determine just how many citations marked explicitly as divine speech are in fact quotations from anterior oracles.”15 In other words, there may well be additional citations in Joel that we cannot determine. From the existing allusions, however, a time period around 500 B.C. well fits the evidence.

Prinsloo helpfully comments regarding the topic of dating of Joel:

Literary Art

JOEL IS WRITTEN mainly in poetry, as is the case for most prophecy. As such, it uses language carefully and for effect. Two literary devices used frequently in the book are simile and metaphor, figurative comparisons between things. Simile is evident through the twelve appearances of the comparative preposition “like” in Hebrew (see Joel 1:8, 15; 2:2, 3, 4[2x], 5[3x], 7[2x], 9).

Metaphor is also plentiful in Joel. These include various types:

A central literary concern is the unity of the book, which is questioned because of the clear break between a description of a natural calamity that had befallen Judah (Joel 1–2:27) on the one hand, and a future international (eschatological?) judgment (2:28–3:21) on the other.17 It must be noted, however, that much of the vocabulary in Joel is repeated within the book, often more than once, or else themes or motifs are reused. This emphasizes the seriousness of the message, but also the unity of the text.18 One cannot with certainty say at what stage this unity is achieved, or whether it is the work of a single author19 or of a redactor of originally separate units.20 In its present form, however, the book functions well as a unit.

Theology

The Day of the Lord

THE DAY OF THE LORD plays a significant literary as well as theological role in the book. Five times Joel uses that phrase (1:15; 2:1, 11, 31; 3:14), while six times he describes days of God’s intervention (1:15, “that day”; 2:2, “day of darkness and gloom,” “day of clouds and blackness”; 2:29, “in those days” [pouring out God’s Spirit]; 3:1, “in those days” [restore Judah’s fortunes]; 3:18, “in that day” [abundance of wine, milk, and water]),21 arranged in such a way throughout the book as to suggest that the writer saw it as a unifying theme.22 The Day of the Lord plays a rich role in the prophets,23 and two of its facets are brought out by Joel: the nature of this day and the time of its coming.

The Day is commonly held by Israel to be a day in which God blesses them, a day to be anticipated (e.g., Amos 5:18). This view is supported by numerous false prophets who present the same theological fallacy: If you are an Israelite, you only face hope and blessing (e.g., Jer. 14:13–15; 27:9–18; Ezek. 13:10–12; Mic. 3:5). It is thus easy for Joel’s audience, and Israel from all periods in her history, to anticipate the wrong message when they hear about the coming of the Day of the Lord.

Three references to the Day of the Lord in Joel indicate that it is “near” or “at hand” (Joel 1:15; 2:1; 3:14), and another describes it as being already present (2:11). This is a common warning motif among the prophets, calling for attention to something before it might come (e.g., Isa. 13:6; Ezek. 30:3; Obad. 15; Zeph. 1:7, 14). The fifth occurrence of the Day, however, puts a different chronological slant on it, viewing it as distant (2:31), an event coming “afterward” (Joel 2:28). The two chronological vantage points also present different interpretations of its nature. All five occurrences in the book speak of a time of calamity, terror, destruction, and darkness. The first three have it happening to Israel and her people. The last two verses, however, direct the judgmental aspects of the Day against Israel’s neighbors (3:12), or those even among Israel who are not responding appropriately to God (contrasted with those who do respond rightly in 2:32).

There is a distinction, therefore, between the near term “day,” which is black indeed for everyone, and a more distant “day,” which anticipates a time of hope for the faithful (cf. 2:29; 3:1, 18). In light of the despair facing everyone because of the current calamities, there needs to be a ray of future hope, but also a warning that there is no restoration without repentance.

There is also evidence that the blessings of the Day for a repentant people might not be that distant. Joel describes God’s pity on his people (Joel 2:19), referring to the prophecy in Hosea 2:21–22. The immediate context of Joel does not mention the Day, but Hosea places it in that context.

This shows that the concept of the Day of the Lord is not monolithic, anticipating one event at a future time. While there is evidence for a future and cataclysmic event of judgment and of blessing, there are also other days, also of blessing and judgment, that are harbingers of that final event.24 This can be compared with military events during World War II. There were numerous days of Allied offensive leading up to the main attack on the day of major assault, June 6, 1944, otherwise known as D-Day. The intermediary days of the Lord are in anticipation of the culminating D-Day of the Lord.

Zion

ZION ALSO PLAYS a theologically significant role in the book of Joel, explicitly mentioned seven times (Joel 2:1, 15, 23, 32; 3:16, 17, 21).25 Its first occurrence is as the site of trumpet blasts, raising the alarm cry heralding the Day of the Lord (2:1) and calling the people to a solemn assembly (2:15). A summons to Zion is also mentioned in other biblical contexts, and the purpose for assembly is ambiguous. At times it has a negative connotation, being a warning of destruction or punishment (e.g., Isa. 3:6; 10:12, 24; 64:10; Jer. 4:6; 6:2). On other occasions, Zion will receive blessing (Isa. 52:1, 2, 7, 8), so the call does not of itself point unambiguously toward either good or ill.

Blessing bestowed anew on the land and its inhabitants is also the theme of the encounter with Zion in Joel 2:23. It is often associated elsewhere with goodness, faithfulness, redemption, and even the law itself (e.g., Isa. 1:27; 2:3; 14:32; 33:20; 59:20; Mic. 4:2; Zeph. 3:14–17). These benefits come from its association with God. When the association is removed, so are the benefits (e.g., Jer. 14:19; 26:18; Mic. 3:12). A variation of this motif of blessing is Zion as the place of refuge and escape, picked up in its occurrence in Joel 2:32 as well as elsewhere (e.g., 2 Kings 19:31; Isa. 30:19; 35:10; 37:31; 51:3; Obad. 17; Mic. 4:7).

Noise is also associated with Zion in its next occurrence, this time in the form of a roar from God striking awe in enemies but being an encouraging sound for his people (Joel 3:16). This multivalent sound also occurs in other prophecies (e.g., Amos 1:2; cf. Isa. 31:4).

Zion as God’s dwelling place is the subject of the final two Joel passages (Joel 3:17, 21). Its holiness is especially emphasized. This particular state is highlighted in other passages (e.g., Isa. 4:3–5), while the presence of God there is the focus of others (e.g., Isa. 8:18; 12:6; Jer. 31:6; 50:5). It will not only be the place of his presence but also of his sovereign rule (e.g., Isa. 24:23; Mic. 4:7; Zech. 9:9; cf. Isa. 16:1; 18:7), characterized by justice (e.g., Isa. 28:16–17; 33:5).

The prophecy thus shows a panoply of events related to Zion. As the residence of God in his temple, it is holy and therefore not welcoming of those who do not follow God. Those who turn to him, however, are welcome and provided rest and refreshment. It is the source of warning calls for those in opposition, but also a summons for those seeking succor. In a manner similar to that surrounding the Day of the Lord, Zion has two facets: a positive one for those desiring a positive relationship with God, and a negative one for those opposing his will and ways.