Original Meaning

MAINTAINING A COVENANT RELATIONSHIP, whether in a home or a religious community, requires enjoyment of regular interaction. To ensure and coordinate these encounters, it helps to schedule in advance. This is especially true when it comes to uniting a large group of people for some kind of celebration. In fact, we have made some special times, such as Thanksgiving and Christmas, a permanent part of our calendar so that everyone will always know when to participate in what.

In the ritual calendar of Leviticus 23, the emphasis was on outlining overall observance of sacred times. The parallel calendar in Numbers 28–29 fills in important details by providing a comprehensive inventory of public sacrifices that must be performed at the sanctuary on regular and festival occasions. These chapters simultaneously remind the Israelites of earlier instructions and complement these as the Israelites prepare for life with God in the Promised Land.

Daily worship. Numbers 28 begins by reiterating the prescription given earlier at Sinai (Ex. 29:38–42) for regular (tamid) burnt offerings, which must be performed every day as the foundation of the sacrificial system (Num. 28:1–8). This sacrifice constitutes what the Lord lavishly describes in a series of appositions as “my offering [qorban], my food [leḥem] for my food gifts [plural of ʾiššeh], my pleasant aroma [reaḥ niḥoaḥ]” (28:2; my transl.).

“Food” is the operative metaphor. So the fact that the sacrifice must be offered twice a day, one lamb in the morning and the other “between the evenings” (i.e., at twilight; 28:4), indicates that the two burnt offerings with their accompanying grain and drink offerings (28:5, 7a; cf. 15:4–5) constitute the daily symbolic “meals” of the Lord that are essential for maintaining his Presence among the Israelites.

In addition to the usual offering of “wine” (yayin; cf. 15:5) at the outer altar to accompany the regular burnt offering, 28:7b prescribes a unique libation of šekar. This beverage is to be offered in the qodeš (“Holy [Place],” i.e., inside the tabernacle). Usually šekar is interpreted as strong/fermented drink. There is considerable support for this idea. (1) In several contexts, the noun šekar clearly refers to an intoxicant (1 Sam. 1:15; Prov. 31:6; Isa. 28:7; 29:9). (2) The adjective and verb from the same root škr are associated with intoxication (Gen. 9:21; 1 Sam. 1:13–14; 2 Sam. 11:13). (3) The Akkadian cognate šikaru refers to beer (made from grain) or another kind of fermented alcoholic beverage, such as wine or fig wine.1 Beer appears, for example, in a description of daily sacrifices at Uruk.2 (4) Syriac šěkar/šakrā is “strong drink other than wine, esp. a liquor made from dates or from honey” (cf. šakar/šakrā, “sugar”).3

That alcoholic beverages would be offered at the holy sanctuary for symbolic utilization by the Lord as part of his daily “meal” seems inconsistent with the rule in Leviticus 2:11, that no yeast/leaven or even honey was permitted in a grain offering turned into smoke to the Lord on his altar (cf. 6:17), presumably because these materials included or were susceptible to fermentation associated with “death,” which was antagonistic to holiness.4 Leavened bread was presented for thanksgiving and firstfruits offerings, but the Lord assigned it to priests for their utilization rather than keeping it himself (7:13–14; 23:17, 20). The concept that something holy should be kept free from contact with fermentation/intoxication also appears to be behind the divine commands that priests must not drink wine or šekar when they enter the sacred Tent (10:8), and Nazirites must abstain from these beverages during their periods of consecration (Num. 6:3; cf. Judg. 13:4, 7, 14).

Even if it is be argued that sacrificial wine should be poured out beside the altar at its base (Ecclus. 50:15; Josephus, Ant. 3.234) rather than on its hearth, the offering of šekar is a special problem because it is to be poured out to the Lord inside the sacred Tent (Num. 28:7). Perhaps one or both types of drink offerings are unfermented, with yayin and/or šekar referring to the same kinds of juices that become alcoholic if fermented (yayin—see Isa. 16:10; Jer. 40:10, 12; 48:33; shekar—see Syriac cognate, cited above). But there is no clear evidence to settle this issue.

Inside the tabernacle, the offering of šekar utilizes golden libation vessels placed on the golden table along with the “bread of the Presence” (Ex. 25:29; 37:16).

Thus, the libatory act is that of pouring a libation (see Num. 4:7) of šēkār (Num. 28:7b) into the golden vessels, whereupon the vessels with their contents simply remain upon the table until the time comes to replace them with fresh drink. This would parallel the presentation type bread offering, which is simply placed/arranged (śym—Lev. 24:6; ʿrk—vs. 8) on the table until it is changed on the next Sabbath (vs. 8).5

Whereas the ritual of renewing the “bread of the Presence” takes place once per week on the Sabbath (Lev. 24:8), the context in which the šekar libation is prescribed (Num. 28:7b) indicates that it is performed twice daily, like the drink offerings of wine accompanying the regular morning and evening burnt offerings (28:7a, 8).

Liturgical year. After prescribing the regular daily sacrifices, the ritual calendar of Numbers 28–29 moves to additional sacrifices performed weekly on the Sabbath (28:9–10), monthly at new moons (28:11–15), and yearly at the annual festivals of Passover and Unleavened Bread (28:16–25), Weeks (28:26–31), Trumpets (29:1–6), the Day of Atonement (29:7–11), and Booths (29:12–38). The order is the same as in Leviticus 23, going from smaller to larger cycles and moving through the yearly festivals in chronological order from spring to autumn.

Notice the following characteristics of the ritual calendar. (1) Numbers includes daily and new moon observances (28:1–8, 11–15), which Leviticus 23 does not. Conversely, Numbers does not mention the day when a sheaf of new barley is dedicated by elevating it before the Lord (Lev. 23:9–14).

(2) Numbers fills in specifications for additional sacrifices at some points where Leviticus abbreviates (cf., e.g., Lev. 23:8; Num. 28:18–24). At the same time, Numbers mentions unique observances detailed in Leviticus—such as the offering of new grain at the Feast of Weeks (23:16–17, 20) and the pilgrimage aspect of the Feast of Booths (29:12–40)—only in passing (Num. 28:26; 29:12).

(3) Additional complexes of sacrifices on festival occasions to supplement the regular burnt offering are similar to each other, varying primarily in terms of the numbers of victims (see below).

(4) The fact that festival sacrifices are “in addition to the regular morning burnt offering” (28:23) implies that they are to be performed just after that burnt offering and its accompaniments.6

(5) The calendar richly illustrates ritual hierarchy. We find in ascending order of complexity: (a) individual rituals, (b) small complexes consisting of combinations of individual rituals, such as a burnt offering with its accompanying grain and drink offerings, (c) larger complexes in which several smaller complexes are embedded, such as groups of burnt offerings with their accompaniments, (d) individual festival days on which several large ritual complexes are performed, and (e) multiday festivals.7

The table below summarizes burnt and purification offerings (not including the Passover lamb) that must be performed on the various religious occasions:

Occasion	Date	Reference	Burnt Offerings	Purification Offerings
daily		28:1–8	2 lambs
Sabbath		28:9–10	2 lambs
new moon		28:11–15	2 bulls, 1 ram, 7 lambs	1 goat
Passover	1/14	28:16
Unleavened Bread	1/15	28:17–25	2 bulls, 1 ram, 7 lambs	1 goat
“	1/16	28:24	2 bulls, 1 ram, 7 lambs	1 goat
“	1/17	28:24	2 bulls, 1 ram, 7 lambs	1 goat
“	1/18	28:24	2 bulls, 1 ram, 7 lambs	1 goat
“	1/19	28:24	2 bulls, 1 ram, 7 lambs	1 goat
“	1/20	28:24	2 bulls, 1 ram, 7 lambs	1 goat
“	1/21	28:24–25	2 bulls, 1 ram, 7 lambs	1 goat
Weeks	50 days after sheaf8	28:26–31	2 bulls, 1 ram, 7 lambs	1 goat
Trumpets	7/1	29:1–6	1 bull, 1 ram, 7 lambs	1 goat
Day of Purgation	7/10	29:7–11	1 bull, 1 ram, 7 lambs	1 goat
Booths	7/15	29:12–16	13 bulls, 2 rams, 14 lambs	1 goat
“	7/16	29:17–19	12 bulls, 2 rams, 14 lambs	1 goat
“	7/17	29:20–22	11 bulls, 2 rams, 14 lambs	1 goat
“	7/18	29:23–25	10 bulls, 2 rams, 14 lambs	1 goat
“	7/19	29:26–28	9 bulls, 2 rams, 14 lambs	1 goat
“	7/20	29:29–31	8 bulls, 2 rams, 14 lambs	1 goat
“	7/21	29:32–34	7 bulls, 2 rams, 14 lambs	1 goat
concluding day	7/22	29:35–38	1 bull, 1 ram, 7 lambs	1 goat

Chiastic symmetry frames the yearly festivals (cf. comments on Lev. 23:23–44):

Spring:	Passover (1 day) Unleavened Bread (7 days)
Autumn:	Booths (7 days) concluding day (1 day)

Between the two seven-day festivals are three one-day festivals, of which the middle one (Trumpets) stands at the center of the calendar and marks the transition to the awesome festivals of the seventh month. As the first day of the seventh month, this is the seventh of the twelve new moon days.

The number seven, which is associated with the weekly Sabbath and conveys the idea of holiness,9 is prominent in the Israelite system of new moons and festivals. At new moons and on each festival day, seven or fourteen (= 2 × 7) lambs are offered as burnt offerings. The ritual year culminates in the seventh month. Since Unleavened Bread and Booths last for seven days each, the total number of each kind of animal offered during these festivals is a multiple of seven. During the seven-day Feast of Booths, a total of seventy (= 7 × 10) bulls are offered as burnt offerings, including seven on the seventh day (7/21). These instances of the number seven suggest that the cyclical holy times of special worship (cf. Lev. 23:2–4, 7–8, 21, 24, 27, etc.) are, in a sense, extensions of the weekly Sabbath.10

The large numbers of sacrifices during the Feast of Booths acknowledge God’s blessings at the thanksgiving season of harvest. How can the Israelites afford to give so much to God, both corporately and privately? They are like a farmer who was asked how he could give so much to his church and still have more to give. “‘Oh,’ the farmer declared, ‘that is easy to explain. I keep shoveling into God’s bin, and God keeps shoveling into mine—but God has the bigger shovel!’”11

Bridging Contexts

SABBATH AND THE “NEW COVENANT.” In addition to the morning and evening burnt offerings at the Israelite sanctuary, two lambs are to be sacrificed as burnt offerings every Sabbath (28:9–10). It is not surprising that the Sabbath should be honored in this way and by renewal of the “bread of the Presence” (Lev. 24:8). In addition to its function as a celebration of creation (Ex. 20:11), the Sabbath took on additional meaning for the Israelites as a reminder of divine deliverance from Egypt (Deut. 5:15). Like creation, God accomplished the redemption from Egypt by his creative power, which was displayed in the plagues on Egypt, salvation from Pharaoh’s army at the Red Sea, and miraculous provision for his people in the desert (Ex. 7–17).

For most Christians, the Sabbath does not commemorate deliverance of their literal ancestors from Egypt. However, the honored place of the Sabbath in the worship system of Israel as a particular phase of the divine covenant does not nullify its foundational significance as the ongoing “birthday of the world” for other people living at other times and places.12

For Israel, the sanctified Sabbath (Gen. 2:2–3) was more than a commandment. According to Exodus 31:13, 17 (cf. Ezek. 20:12), it served as a sign of the covenant relationship by which the Lord sanctified his people, who emulated their Creator by resting from their work. Those who rest on the Sabbath acknowledge their dependence on God as their Creator and Sanctifier. Such dependence continues every moment that he sustains human life (Job 12:10; Ps. 144:14–15; 145:15–16; Dan. 5:23). So the basic meaning of the Sabbath, which encapsulates this divine-human relationship,13 cannot become obsolete as long as human beings inhabit Planet Earth.

The Lord stipulated Sabbath observance for the Israelites in the form of law (Ex. 20:8–11), and the Sinaitic/Israelite phase of the divine covenant, which emphasized law, has been followed by a “new covenant” (Jer. 31:31–34). However, this does not mean that the Sabbath has passed away with the “old covenant.” For one thing, the covenant established with Israel at Sinai became “old”/dysfunctional as a result of failure on the human side of the divine-human relationship (31:32), not because the Lord offered his chosen people a defective covenant of salvation by works. It takes two good partners to make a good “marriage.”

To the nation of Israel, God offered salvation by grace through faith, as he did to Abraham (cf. Gen. 15:6) and as he does to “new covenant” Christians (Eph. 2:8). First he saved the Israelites by grace (Ex. 20:2), and then he gave his commandments to these already saved people as the charter of his covenant relationship with them (20:3–17). Grace through faith has always been the way of salvation. There has never been a different way. There has been a succession of divine covenants, but they function as phases of cumulative development in God’s plan rather than different roads to redemption.14

Christ’s revelation illuminates divine principles behind God’s law (e.g., Matt. 5:17–48), but Christ did not replace law as the means of salvation (see 5:17; Rom. 3:31) for God has never offered salvation on that basis. In Jeremiah 31:31–34, the difference between the “old” and “new” covenants is not between “law” and “grace,” as many Christians assume. Rather, the “new covenant” based on forgiveness (31:34) is characterized by humble internalization of the divine law as a gift from God (31:33), by contrast with “old covenant” disobedience resulting from failure to internalize (31:32). “It is harder to break the law when it is internalized; sin against law in the heart would be a ‘myocardial infraction.’”15

If God’s “new covenant” sanctifies his people by putting his holy law in their hearts, and if basic Sabbath rest is a timeless part of that law rather than a temporary ceremonial “type” (see above and the Bridging Contexts section of Lev. 23:1–22), it makes sense that the “new covenant” restores the Sabbath to its proper place. It is those who allow God to sanctify them who can truly keep the sanctified day. When the Israelites disobeyed the Lord and failed to receive his sanctification, any Sabbath rest they observed was a hypocritical outward form, a “tour de farce.” However, when people accept God’s grace and internalization of his law, he makes them holy as he is holy (cf. Lev. 19:2), and their Sabbath-keeping becomes a genuine sign of a real sanctification experience (Ex. 31:13; cf. Isa. 58:6–14).

During his ministry on earth, Jesus showed Christians how to live under the “new covenant.”16 The fact that he took so much trouble to restore the Sabbath indicates that it was of prime importance for him and he wasn’t about to do away with it. You don’t remodel a house if you are about to demolish it. Jesus incurred and ignored perilous controversy by persistently and pointedly healing on the Sabbath (see, e.g., Mark 3:1–6; John 5:2–18; 9:1–41), thereby demonstrating that “the Sabbath was made for man, not man for the Sabbath” (Mark 2:27).

By healing on the Sabbath, Jesus gave rest from suffering and manifested his divine, creative power (John 5:17). He also provided “snapshots” of God’s ideal for the world as he created it (“very good”; Gen. 1:1–2:3) and as he promises to restore it (Rev. 21–22):

Some see miracles as an implausible suspension of the laws of the physical universe. As signs, though, they serve just the opposite function. Death, decay, entropy, and destruction are the true suspensions of God’s laws; miracles are the early glimpses of restoration. In the words of Jurgen Moltmann, “Jesus’ healings are not supernatural miracles in a natural world. They are the only truly ‘natural’ things in a world that is unnatural, demonized and wounded.”17

Contemporary Significance

DAILY ASSURANCE. AT the ancient sanctuary, morning and evening ritual worship framed every day of the year, and the evening burnt offering was “to remain on the altar hearth throughout the night, till morning” (Lev. 6:9). This regular worship was foundational for maintaining Israel’s connection with God (cf. Num. 28:2).

The earthly sanctuary and its sacrifices are gone, but there remains the need for everyone who enjoys a “new covenant” relationship with God to maintain it on a daily basis. The point is not that the Lord is dependent on our service and will immediately reject us if we miss a day, but that we need frequent and regular reaffirmation of our connection to him. Martin Luther wrote:

It is a good thing to let prayer be the first business of the morning and the last at night. Guard yourself carefully against those false, deluding ideas which tell you, “Wait a little while. I will pray in an hour; first I must attend to this or that.” Such thoughts get you away from prayer into other affairs which so hold your attention and involve you that nothing comes of prayer for that day.18

By maintaining our line of communication with God, we refresh our assurance that we belong to him. This relational link is the basis for any other kind of assurance that we may enjoy (1 John 5:11–13).

Daily and festival sacrifices at the Israelite sanctuary, with their smoke ascending heavenward, showed that a healthy relationship with God was available to anyone, anywhere, anytime. Now our prayers ascend to where our sacrificial Lamb is depicted as if he has just been slaughtered (Rev. 5:6), that is, carrying the cross event with him to continually offer its healing to all who will avail themselves of it. Those who have him have assurance of life.

Christians and the Israelite festivals. A number of activities involved in Israelite worship, such as prayers, music, and the priestly blessing,19 did not function as temporary types. However, the ritual essence of the yearly festivals did serve as historical temporary types, which Christians are not required to observe (see Bridging Contexts section of Lev. 23:1–22).

Even if it could be argued that (antitypical) fulfillment of one or more of the autumn festivals is still in the future from our perspective, this does not mean that Christians who wish to follow the Bible are required to keep it/them today. In the New Testament, the focus of Christian worship has shifted from an earthly place of God’s Presence, with its human priests, animal sacrifices, and yearly cycle of national festivals, to the heavenly temple, where Christ ministers (Heb. 7–10).

Unlike the weekly Sabbath, the yearly festivals were grounded in the experience of the Israelite nation within its historical and agricultural context. Because the essence of their observance was dependent on the ritual system centered at the sanctuary/temple, the heart of the festivals could not survive the demise of the temple institution.20 Today it is impossible for us to fulfill the festival requirements even if we want to because that would require pilgrimage to a functioning temple in Jerusalem, where special festival sacrifices would be offered (Ex. 23:14–17; 34:22–24; Lev. 23; Num. 28–29).

After the Romans destroyed the Second Temple in A.D. 70, Jews have continued to observe the festivals by developing adapted festival liturgies, including traditional and didactic components, from important biblical elements that do not require sacrifice or pilgrimage. But Christians who accept only the Bible as their rule of faith and practice should not imagine that by keeping the current Jewish festivals they will fulfill the biblical festival requirements.

While Christians are not obliged to keep the festivals, anyone who has the privilege of voluntarily participating in a Jewish holiday (= holy day) will likely experience rich edification and understanding of common heritage, as I have on a number of occasions in Israel and in the United States. In this way we can grow spiritually in three important ways. (1) We can learn how to concretize our experience of God’s deliverance from evil and pass it on to our children in a way that will make a powerful impression on them. (2) We can gain appreciation for the corporate dimension of redemption: The Lord saves people to be a community rather than simply isolated individuals. (3) We can learn the joy of thanksgiving by faith, expressing gratitude to God for what he has done, is doing, and will surely do for us even if not everything has gone well lately and we do not know the details of how things will turn out.

Just as the Lord appointed yearly times of thanksgiving for the Israelites, it is beneficial for us to schedule regular times of gratitude that we celebrate even though we may not be in a joyful mood. Did the United States cancel Thanksgiving in November of 2001 because it came soon after September 11? No. Rather, our thanksgiving drew upon and strengthened a richer dimension of faith. If less bright, it was more profound. If it wasn’t Renoir, it was Rembrandt.

Paul urged Christians to “give thanks in all circumstances, for this is God’s will for you in Christ Jesus” (1 Thess. 5:18; emphasis supplied). This kind of unconditional thanksgiving as a way of life—“thanksliving”21—is based on unconditional love and trust.

A man told his wife that he was planning to risk asking his employer for a raise. Apprehensive all day, he finally summoned his courage and approached his boss. He was surprised and delighted when the boss immediately agreed to grant the request.

When he returned home, he found that the table was set with the best dishes, candles were lit, and his wife had prepared a magnificent supper to celebrate. He suspected that someone from the office must have already informed her, but he happily broke the great news anyway. After hugging and kissing, they sat down to eat.

Next to his plate, the man found a beautiful note: “Congratulations, darling! I knew you’d get the raise! All of this tells you how much I love you.”

But while on her way to the kitchen to get dessert, he noticed that a second card had slipped from her pocket. Picking it up, he read: “Don’t worry about not getting the raise! You deserve it anyway! These things will tell you how much I love you.”22

With total acceptance and trust, she was ready to celebrate, no matter what.

Although biblical events such as the Exodus from Egypt did not directly benefit the ancestors of those of us who are Gentiles, New Testament Christians share with the Jewish people the foundational biblical heritage revealed through Abraham and his descendants. Furthermore, the Exodus from Pharaoh’s Egypt served as a harbinger of universal Exodus from bondage to sin and Satan through Christ, our Passover Lamb (1 Cor. 5:7).

To preserve the memory and hope of the worldwide Exodus, Christ transformed a Passover celebration into the Lord’s Supper/communion service (Matt. 26:26–29; 1 Cor. 11:23–26). Because this commemoration utilizes only bread and wine and requires no temple priesthood, it is perfectly suited for ongoing function after the Second Temple period. So we do not need to exercise our ingenuity to figure out how to adapt the Israelite festivals. Christ himself adapted the observance that he commanded us to keep in remembrance of him (1 Cor. 11:24–25; cf. Luke 22:19).