Original Meaning
The Rule of the King (99:1–3)
THE LORD REIGNS, LET THE NATIONS TREMBLE. The opening verses of Psalm 99 present a vivid image of Yahweh as reigning over the whole earth from Zion. The language and imagery seen throughout the Yahweh malak collection is prominent in these verses: “The LORD reigns,” he is exalted, praise to his name is due, and the nations respond in trembling. This language echoes thoughts that dominate Psalms 93–100—Israel’s God reigns absolutely, and the whole world should respond accordingly.
He sits enthroned between the cherubim. Although echoing the kingship themes of its neighboring compositions, Psalm 99 adds a more specific emphasis that focuses on Yahweh’s residency in Zion. The psalm is full of priestly and temple imagery, as illustrated by a good example in verse 1b. The description of Yahweh as sitting enthroned between the cherubim is a reference to the ark of the covenant that was housed in the most holy place in the temple sanctuary. Cherubim were winged creatures—normally of human appearance but sometimes of animal appearance (Ezek 1:5–28)—that “symbolized the transcendence of God ‘enthroned between the cherubim’ (1 Sam 4:4) but could also represent his dynamic intervention in human affairs (Ps 18:10[11]).”1
Mounted on the lid of the ark were two cherubim (Exod 25:17–22), and, symbolically, this lid was seen as the throne upon which Yahweh sat in the temple (Ps 99:1b; cf. Exod 25:22). So effectively, Psalm 99:1b connects Yahweh’s kingship with his presence in Israel’s temple. This connection is further accentuated in verse 2, which also speaks of God’s presence in Zion and his lordship over all the earth at the same time. So, the reminder of Psalm 99 is that Yahweh’s presence among his people serves a purpose that goes beyond his people alone and extends to the nations. These images remind the original Israelite hearers that God is near but also that his presence in Jerusalem has a significance that goes far beyond Zion, Judah, and Israel.2
He is holy. Each of the kingship psalms of this collection focuses on one or another aspect of Yahweh’s character, identity, and purpose in creation and the universe. Psalm 99’s particular focus is on the holiness of God. This emphatic statement—he is holy—serves as a thematic statement at the end of each stanza of the poem (vv. 3, 5, 9). This emphasis on the holiness of God is consistent with the priestly and temple ideology of Psalm 99. The elaborate structure of the temple visually and physically emphasizes the unique holiness of God. Each stage of progression, from the temple courtyard to the inner court to the holy place to the most holy place, indicates an increasing level of holiness as one proceeds toward the real presence of God, who sits enthroned on the cherubim above the ark of the covenant. As with Isaiah’s vision of Yahweh in the temple (Isa 6), the theology of divine presence in Psalm 99 points the nations, for whom the songs of Yahweh’s rule are new (Pss 96:1; 98:1), to the inescapable conclusion that the more they come to know the God of Israel, the more they will be consumed by thoughts of his holiness.3
The particular flavor of holiness theology in Psalm 99 is interesting, however. With the song’s emphasis on intercession and divine speech (vv. 6–8), it seems that the holiness language here is not so much emphasizing the ethical nature of God’s character as it is drawing attention to Yahweh’s consistency of character. He is by definition holy. His being is unchanging; therefore, petitioners can have confidence in approaching God.4
Bridging Contexts
THE HOLINESS OF GOD. Psalm 99 is strongly reminiscent of Isaiah’s vision of God in the temple (Isa 6). Both passages present a picture of God’s absolute rule over the whole earth, and each of them is strongly focused on the holiness of God. Psalm 99, however, draws the reader’s attention to an aspect of the concept of divine holiness that is frequently forgotten in the modern setting but would have been paradigm shattering in the ancient Near East: holiness implies consistency of character.
Often the thoughts of contemporary Christians regarding holiness begin and end with reflections on morality and ethics. Holiness implies there are some things we will (or must) do and some things we will (or must) avoid. Of course, the notion of holiness is, indeed, fundamentally rooted in God’s absolute perfection, including his moral perfection. Yahweh’s ethically upright nature is underlined in verses 3, 4, and 8 in particular. But the psalmist also turns to a ramification of holiness that is less immediately obvious: Since God is holy, his people can approach him in prayer in the knowledge that his character is unchangingly consistent (vv. 6–8).
In the more theologically developed setting of the Christian era, this idea is perhaps not surprising, but in its original setting this psalm was making a claim that would challenge the worldview of the non-Israelite hearers to whom it was addressed. As we have seen above, the Yahweh malak collection of psalms makes the claim that Israel’s God is the cosmic High King. Each of these eight psalms focuses on different aspects and characteristics of God’s universal reign. Through this means, the psalmists are presenting an apology—a genuine work of comparative religion. They are making claims that Yahweh, the God of Israel, is better than the gods of the surrounding nations. Here in Psalm 99 the poet makes the attractive claim that Yahweh’s holiness means not only that he is morally good but also that he is absolutely consistent and therefore hears and answers the prayers of his people.
The gods of the nations could be fickle, capricious, changeable, and downright nasty. Sacrifices were made to appease the gods in an attempt to prevent them from bringing calamity on the people.10
Prayer and sacrifice were forms of hopeful celestial bribery. Consistency of character was the very last thing that Israel’s neighbors would have expected of their gods.
So, the association that the author of Psalm 99 makes between God’s character and his responsiveness to his people’s prayers is important. Holiness implies not only that God is morally good and ethically perfect—it also implies that God’s character is absolutely consistent. His perfection is matched by his grace (v. 8). He hears the prayers of his people and answers them (vv. 6, 8).
Psalm 99 in the New Testament. There is no direct citation of Psalm 99 in the New Testament,11
but the intercessory roles of Moses, Aaron, and Samuel are, of course, perfectly fulfilled in the person of Christ. These great leaders of God’s people were heard because of their priestly roles, which were characterized by close personal relationship with the Lord and commitment to his word (v. 7). But the author of Hebrews tells us that we can have great confidence to approach the throne of grace because Jesus himself, the Great High Priest, intercedes on our behalf (Heb 4:14–16). In terms of relationship, he is the Son of God. In terms of torah obedience, he is without sin. The implication is clear: if God heard and answered the intercessions of the priests of the Old Testament, how much more will he hear and answer the prayers of his Son on behalf of his people? Robert Murray McCheyne is quoted as having said, “If I could hear Christ praying for me in the next room, I would not fear a million of enemies. Yet the distance makes no difference; He is praying for me.”12
Contemporary Significance
CONFIDENCE IN PRAYER. Psalm 99’s theology of holiness speaks to our own attitude toward prayer as Christians. Often our theology exceeds our experiential practice. Often our life of faith does not match up to what we believe about God. I suspect the same is true of our confidence to approach God in prayer. Theologically, we know that God is loving, kind, gracious, forgiving, and hears and answers our prayers. Experientially, however, aware of our repeated failures, believers are often blighted by doubt: “Surely God can’t love me anymore. Surely I have gone too far this time.” Our theology is brought down in practice by our own fears and insecurities so that we end up subtly believing in a God of changeable character.
But our God is a holy God, and therefore he is absolutely consistent in his response to his people. Psalm 99:6–8 provides us with an important reminder: When God’s people cry to him for mercy, he hears and answers their prayer, regardless of the circumstances. The repeated assurance “he answered them” is designed to give comfort and confidence to the reader of this psalm. If God answered Moses’s prayer after the disaster of the golden calf incident; if God answered Aaron’s priestly prayers for a continually mutinous people; if God answered Samuel’s prayer for a people caught in that downward spiral of rebellion marked out in the book of Judges, then God will hear our pleas for mercy as well. He hears because he is gracious and forgiving. He hears because his character is holy, constant, and consistent.
“The Lord reigns” psalms in this collection were probably written in the exilic or early postexilic period, in a time when Yahweh’s reign was far from obvious. Israel had been defeated, Jerusalem had fallen, the king was no longer on the throne, and the temple had been destroyed. It did not look like Yahweh was reigning from Zion. Yet the psalmists call us to see with the eyes of faith. Yahweh does reign, and his character is unchanged. Just as he heard the cries of Moses, Aaron, and Samuel, so also will he hear our cries.
Original Meaning
The Character of the King (99:4–5)
THE KING IS MIGHTY, HE LOVES JUSTICE. The call to the nations to join in the worship of Yahweh is followed in verses 4–5 by a clear rationale for that declaration of allegiance. What is it that makes Yahweh great? He is a King characterized not just by his might but also by a love of justice and the establishment of equity in all areas under his rule.
Verse 4a is actually quite awkward to translate. Literally, it reads: “And the might of a king, he loves justice.” The sentence is unusual because the Hebrew word for strength is expressed as a noun (“might”) and not an adjective (“mighty”). For this word (‘oz) to function as an adjective, we would normally expect the definite article to be attached to the noun “king” (i.e., “the king is mighty”), but the article is missing from verse 4a. This lack of clarity is further exacerbated by the fact that, in the verse, this line alone is written in the third person (speaking about God) rather than in the second person (speaking to God). All these distinctives lead to several equally valid translation possibilities for this line of poetry.5
It is impossible to be dogmatic regarding the best translation. Probably the best option, without emending the Hebrew text, is to translate this line thus: “And a King’s might is his love of justice.”6
In the remaining lines of this verse the psalmist goes on to verify that Yahweh, as High King, has established equity, justice, and righteousness.
Exalt the LORD our God and worship at his footstool; he is holy. Expressed in the language of exaltation in verse 5, the call to praise God displays a delightful contrast in height imagery. As worshipers, we exalt Yahweh (lit., “lift up on high”) while we worship “at his footstool” (i.e., in a position of prostration at Yahweh’s feet). So, this call to worship creates a lovely dualism of humble praise lifting God to his rightful place of glorification. This exaltation is fully justified in Psalm 99’s thematic statement, which is repeated in this verse: he is holy! We exalt God in humility because of his perfect nature and being.
Bridging Contexts
THE HOLINESS OF GOD. Psalm 99 is strongly reminiscent of Isaiah’s vision of God in the temple (Isa 6). Both passages present a picture of God’s absolute rule over the whole earth, and each of them is strongly focused on the holiness of God. Psalm 99, however, draws the reader’s attention to an aspect of the concept of divine holiness that is frequently forgotten in the modern setting but would have been paradigm shattering in the ancient Near East: holiness implies consistency of character.
Often the thoughts of contemporary Christians regarding holiness begin and end with reflections on morality and ethics. Holiness implies there are some things we will (or must) do and some things we will (or must) avoid. Of course, the notion of holiness is, indeed, fundamentally rooted in God’s absolute perfection, including his moral perfection. Yahweh’s ethically upright nature is underlined in verses 3, 4, and 8 in particular. But the psalmist also turns to a ramification of holiness that is less immediately obvious: Since God is holy, his people can approach him in prayer in the knowledge that his character is unchangingly consistent (vv. 6–8).
In the more theologically developed setting of the Christian era, this idea is perhaps not surprising, but in its original setting this psalm was making a claim that would challenge the worldview of the non-Israelite hearers to whom it was addressed. As we have seen above, the Yahweh malak collection of psalms makes the claim that Israel’s God is the cosmic High King. Each of these eight psalms focuses on different aspects and characteristics of God’s universal reign. Through this means, the psalmists are presenting an apology—a genuine work of comparative religion. They are making claims that Yahweh, the God of Israel, is better than the gods of the surrounding nations. Here in Psalm 99 the poet makes the attractive claim that Yahweh’s holiness means not only that he is morally good but also that he is absolutely consistent and therefore hears and answers the prayers of his people.
The gods of the nations could be fickle, capricious, changeable, and downright nasty. Sacrifices were made to appease the gods in an attempt to prevent them from bringing calamity on the people.10
Prayer and sacrifice were forms of hopeful celestial bribery. Consistency of character was the very last thing that Israel’s neighbors would have expected of their gods.
So, the association that the author of Psalm 99 makes between God’s character and his responsiveness to his people’s prayers is important. Holiness implies not only that God is morally good and ethically perfect—it also implies that God’s character is absolutely consistent. His perfection is matched by his grace (v. 8). He hears the prayers of his people and answers them (vv. 6, 8).
Psalm 99 in the New Testament. There is no direct citation of Psalm 99 in the New Testament,11
but the intercessory roles of Moses, Aaron, and Samuel are, of course, perfectly fulfilled in the person of Christ. These great leaders of God’s people were heard because of their priestly roles, which were characterized by close personal relationship with the Lord and commitment to his word (v. 7). But the author of Hebrews tells us that we can have great confidence to approach the throne of grace because Jesus himself, the Great High Priest, intercedes on our behalf (Heb 4:14–16). In terms of relationship, he is the Son of God. In terms of torah obedience, he is without sin. The implication is clear: if God heard and answered the intercessions of the priests of the Old Testament, how much more will he hear and answer the prayers of his Son on behalf of his people? Robert Murray McCheyne is quoted as having said, “If I could hear Christ praying for me in the next room, I would not fear a million of enemies. Yet the distance makes no difference; He is praying for me.”12
Contemporary Significance
CONFIDENCE IN PRAYER. Psalm 99’s theology of holiness speaks to our own attitude toward prayer as Christians. Often our theology exceeds our experiential practice. Often our life of faith does not match up to what we believe about God. I suspect the same is true of our confidence to approach God in prayer. Theologically, we know that God is loving, kind, gracious, forgiving, and hears and answers our prayers. Experientially, however, aware of our repeated failures, believers are often blighted by doubt: “Surely God can’t love me anymore. Surely I have gone too far this time.” Our theology is brought down in practice by our own fears and insecurities so that we end up subtly believing in a God of changeable character.
But our God is a holy God, and therefore he is absolutely consistent in his response to his people. Psalm 99:6–8 provides us with an important reminder: When God’s people cry to him for mercy, he hears and answers their prayer, regardless of the circumstances. The repeated assurance “he answered them” is designed to give comfort and confidence to the reader of this psalm. If God answered Moses’s prayer after the disaster of the golden calf incident; if God answered Aaron’s priestly prayers for a continually mutinous people; if God answered Samuel’s prayer for a people caught in that downward spiral of rebellion marked out in the book of Judges, then God will hear our pleas for mercy as well. He hears because he is gracious and forgiving. He hears because his character is holy, constant, and consistent.
“The Lord reigns” psalms in this collection were probably written in the exilic or early postexilic period, in a time when Yahweh’s reign was far from obvious. Israel had been defeated, Jerusalem had fallen, the king was no longer on the throne, and the temple had been destroyed. It did not look like Yahweh was reigning from Zion. Yet the psalmists call us to see with the eyes of faith. Yahweh does reign, and his character is unchanged. Just as he heard the cries of Moses, Aaron, and Samuel, so also will he hear our cries.
Original Meaning
Pleading with the Holy God (99:6–9)
THE FINAL STANZA OF PSALM 99 focuses in on prayer and intercession, particularly with regard to pleas for mercy.
Moses and Aaron were among his priests. This statement is slightly unusual inasmuch as Aaron was the first Levitical priest, and Moses, although of the priestly clan, is nowhere else in Scripture described as a priest. Samuel is practically unique in the Old Testament in combining the roles of judge, prophet, and priest (1 Sam 6–12). But the emphasis of these verses is not on their roles or offices per se; it is rather on the intercessory activity of these three great leaders of God’s people combined with their obedience to the word of God.
They called on the LORD and he answered them. The psalmist highlights the intercessory ministry of these three Old Testament figures of faith. They prayed to Yahweh and he responded to their petitions. Here the most obvious resonance is probably with Moses’s intercession on behalf of Israel following the golden calf incident (Exod 32–34). Yahweh had been prepared to destroy the whole nation and to form a new people from Moses’s line (Exod 32:9–10), but Moses prayed on behalf of the people and God “relented and did not bring on his people the disaster he had threatened” (Exod 32:14). Aaron, as the first and head of the line of Levitical priests, would also be associated with the mediatory role of prayerful intercession. The priests would offer sacrifices morning and evening and pray to God on behalf of the people, thus enabling continuing fellowship (Exod 29). Samuel also had the reputation of being an intercessor who pleaded for forgiveness on behalf of Israel following their rebellion (1 Sam 7:5–9; Jer 15:1). So, the characters chosen here have a strong association with prayer—in particular, prayer for divine mercy in response to the rebellion of God’s people (Ps 99:8).
He spoke to them . . . they kept his statutes. Combined with their intercessory role, Moses, Aaron, and Samuel were also associated with the teaching of the torah and obedience to God’s revealed word. The priestly office included a teaching role (Lev 10:11; Deut 17:11). God spoke to Moses and Aaron out of the “pillar of cloud” (Exod 33:7–11) to reveal his will, purpose, priorities, and values. These leaders communicated the divine speech to the generation of the exodus and charged them to teach that message to each and every succeeding generation (Deut 4, 6, 11). The psalmist seems to be implying an association between the torah-obedience of Psalm 99:7 and the divine responsiveness in verses 6 and 8 that sandwiches verse 7.
99:6—They prayed, and Yahweh answered them.
99:7—God spoke and they kept his torah.
99:8—The Lord answered them in forgiveness and rebuke.
Placing the statements of divine responsiveness to Moses, Aaron, and Samuel on both sides of this affirmation of their commitment to God’s revealed word emphasizes the importance of genuinely seeking to walk in the ways of the Lord. God is gracious and responds to the prayers of his people, but at the same time it is important for them to strive to live out his revealed purpose. As Zenger points out, verse 7 “underscores the saving and healing power of the Torah.”7
You were to Israel a forgiving God, though you punished their misdeeds. Following the reminder of God’s gracious response to the prayers of his leaders, the poet draws attention to God’s character once again. Psalm 99 emphasizes God’s high kingship within the cosmos and justifies his position by describing the perfection of his character. The repeated statements of divine holiness imply that Yahweh’s character, essence, and being are beyond question. He is worthy of worship as High King because he is the perfect Sovereign.8
Here it is the forgiveness and judgment of God that are brought to the reader’s attention. Literally, the Hebrew states: “You were to them a forgiving God yet an avenger of their misdeeds.” The focus here broadens from Moses, Aaron, and Samuel specifically to encompass the whole people of God, on whose behalf these men had prayed.9
Here is the essence of right kingship: a ruler who is merciful, yet one who will always keep his charge from descending into chaos. Once again, this verse resonates strongly with the divine self-presentation in Exod 34:6–7. The stress is on God’s grace, but his mercy should never be abused.
For the LORD our God is holy. The closing verse once again draws attention to the perfect nature of Yahweh, which justifies his sovereign rule and cosmic reign. In the context of this collection of psalms (Pss 93–100), there is a clear missional overtone to the concluding call to worship in verse 9: “Exalt the LORD
our God and worship at his holy mountain for the LORD
our God is holy” (emphasis added). The nations who are explicitly addressed in verse 1 are called to recognize that Yahweh’s right to rule is based on his unimpeachable character. No other god is as fundamentally good as the God of Israel; therefore, he alone is worthy of worship, exaltation, and rule.
Bridging Contexts
THE HOLINESS OF GOD. Psalm 99 is strongly reminiscent of Isaiah’s vision of God in the temple (Isa 6). Both passages present a picture of God’s absolute rule over the whole earth, and each of them is strongly focused on the holiness of God. Psalm 99, however, draws the reader’s attention to an aspect of the concept of divine holiness that is frequently forgotten in the modern setting but would have been paradigm shattering in the ancient Near East: holiness implies consistency of character.
Often the thoughts of contemporary Christians regarding holiness begin and end with reflections on morality and ethics. Holiness implies there are some things we will (or must) do and some things we will (or must) avoid. Of course, the notion of holiness is, indeed, fundamentally rooted in God’s absolute perfection, including his moral perfection. Yahweh’s ethically upright nature is underlined in verses 3, 4, and 8 in particular. But the psalmist also turns to a ramification of holiness that is less immediately obvious: Since God is holy, his people can approach him in prayer in the knowledge that his character is unchangingly consistent (vv. 6–8).
In the more theologically developed setting of the Christian era, this idea is perhaps not surprising, but in its original setting this psalm was making a claim that would challenge the worldview of the non-Israelite hearers to whom it was addressed. As we have seen above, the Yahweh malak collection of psalms makes the claim that Israel’s God is the cosmic High King. Each of these eight psalms focuses on different aspects and characteristics of God’s universal reign. Through this means, the psalmists are presenting an apology—a genuine work of comparative religion. They are making claims that Yahweh, the God of Israel, is better than the gods of the surrounding nations. Here in Psalm 99 the poet makes the attractive claim that Yahweh’s holiness means not only that he is morally good but also that he is absolutely consistent and therefore hears and answers the prayers of his people.
The gods of the nations could be fickle, capricious, changeable, and downright nasty. Sacrifices were made to appease the gods in an attempt to prevent them from bringing calamity on the people.10
Prayer and sacrifice were forms of hopeful celestial bribery. Consistency of character was the very last thing that Israel’s neighbors would have expected of their gods.
So, the association that the author of Psalm 99 makes between God’s character and his responsiveness to his people’s prayers is important. Holiness implies not only that God is morally good and ethically perfect—it also implies that God’s character is absolutely consistent. His perfection is matched by his grace (v. 8). He hears the prayers of his people and answers them (vv. 6, 8).
Psalm 99 in the New Testament. There is no direct citation of Psalm 99 in the New Testament,11
but the intercessory roles of Moses, Aaron, and Samuel are, of course, perfectly fulfilled in the person of Christ. These great leaders of God’s people were heard because of their priestly roles, which were characterized by close personal relationship with the Lord and commitment to his word (v. 7). But the author of Hebrews tells us that we can have great confidence to approach the throne of grace because Jesus himself, the Great High Priest, intercedes on our behalf (Heb 4:14–16). In terms of relationship, he is the Son of God. In terms of torah obedience, he is without sin. The implication is clear: if God heard and answered the intercessions of the priests of the Old Testament, how much more will he hear and answer the prayers of his Son on behalf of his people? Robert Murray McCheyne is quoted as having said, “If I could hear Christ praying for me in the next room, I would not fear a million of enemies. Yet the distance makes no difference; He is praying for me.”12
Contemporary Significance
CONFIDENCE IN PRAYER. Psalm 99’s theology of holiness speaks to our own attitude toward prayer as Christians. Often our theology exceeds our experiential practice. Often our life of faith does not match up to what we believe about God. I suspect the same is true of our confidence to approach God in prayer. Theologically, we know that God is loving, kind, gracious, forgiving, and hears and answers our prayers. Experientially, however, aware of our repeated failures, believers are often blighted by doubt: “Surely God can’t love me anymore. Surely I have gone too far this time.” Our theology is brought down in practice by our own fears and insecurities so that we end up subtly believing in a God of changeable character.
But our God is a holy God, and therefore he is absolutely consistent in his response to his people. Psalm 99:6–8 provides us with an important reminder: When God’s people cry to him for mercy, he hears and answers their prayer, regardless of the circumstances. The repeated assurance “he answered them” is designed to give comfort and confidence to the reader of this psalm. If God answered Moses’s prayer after the disaster of the golden calf incident; if God answered Aaron’s priestly prayers for a continually mutinous people; if God answered Samuel’s prayer for a people caught in that downward spiral of rebellion marked out in the book of Judges, then God will hear our pleas for mercy as well. He hears because he is gracious and forgiving. He hears because his character is holy, constant, and consistent.
“The Lord reigns” psalms in this collection were probably written in the exilic or early postexilic period, in a time when Yahweh’s reign was far from obvious. Israel had been defeated, Jerusalem had fallen, the king was no longer on the throne, and the temple had been destroyed. It did not look like Yahweh was reigning from Zion. Yet the psalmists call us to see with the eyes of faith. Yahweh does reign, and his character is unchanged. Just as he heard the cries of Moses, Aaron, and Samuel, so also will he hear our cries.
NIDOTTE 2:717.