Original Meaning

PERGAMUM WAS A famous city that had long prospered; it included between 120,000 and 200,000 inhabitants.1 Its citizens had also proved foresighted enough to take the lead in joining Rome to defeat the other kings of the eastern Mediterranean, thereby securing for themselves special favor. The image of the “sword” may allude to the Roman government’s ius gladii, the right to execute capital punishment, in which case Jesus is reminding Christians that he, not the Roman governor, holds the power of life and death (1:18).2 Such words would encourage the persecuted (2:13). Yet this letter focuses on false teachers in the church, so the “sword” may refer to the judgment of war, as often in the biblical prophets—but here with reference to the Lord Jesus, who will war against false teachers corrupting his church (2:15–16).3

This church faced external as well as internal opposition. Although its general sense is clear enough, the precise referent of “Satan’s throne” (2:13) is disputed. The healing cult of Asclepius was famous at Pergamum; Christians from this city may recognize in Revelation’s serpent (12:9) the chief symbol of their city’s deity.4 More often scholars think of the famous huge throne-like altar of “Zeus the Savior,” whose sculptures included serpents; it was “a monumental colonnaded court in the form of a horseshoe, 120 by 112 feet,” whose podium “was nearly 18 feet high.”5

Other pagan connections likewise remained prominent in Pergamum, especially surrounding Demeter, Dionysius, Athena, and Orpheus.6 Any or all of these connections with “Satan’s throne” is possible. If a specific allusion to paganism is in view, however, the greatest immediate threat to believers would have been the cult of the emperor; the old temple of Augustus stood on the lofty rock citadel, conspicuous to anyone who approached the city.7 As a center of the provincial imperial cult, Pergamum warranted Revelation’s apt condemnation as Satan’s “throne.”8 Pergamum not surprisingly appears among the cities some Jews thought slated for divine destruction (Sib. Or. 5.119).9

Given the context, paganism in general or, more likely, the imperial cult in particular led to the martyrdom of Antipas mentioned in 2:13. As a “faithful witness” he is like his Lord (1:5; cf. 3:14). Others in the church have survived but have nevertheless suffered, and Jesus commends them for their “faith” in him (2:13), which probably means faithfulness to him (cf. 2:10; 14:12).10 But despite Jesus’ special sensitivity for a suffering church (2:8–11; 3:7–12), having suffered does not automatically validate everything we do or believe (2:14).

In addition to opposition from the outside, Pergamum is also experiencing internal problems. Like “Jezebel” in Thyatira (2:20), “Balaam” (2:14) is undoubtedly not the prophet’s own preferred name, but a code name signifying that this prophet is a false one, leading astray the people of God. In the Bible and more clearly in Jewish tradition, Balaam acted out of greed for money (Num. 22:19; Deut. 23:4; Neh. 13:2; 2 Peter 2:15; Jude 11).11 He led Israel into sin in order to take them out of God’s favor, recognizing that this was the only way to destroy them (Num. 31:16). Others also acknowledged that Israel could only be crushed if first lured into disobedience to God (Judith 5:20–21; 11:10).12 The particular sins of Israel in connection with Balaam were sexual immorality and food offered to idols (Num. 25:1–2; cf. 31:8, 16), sins that remained temptations in later pagan society and brought judgment on Christians (1 Cor. 10:7–8; Did. 6.3).13

Scholars debate whether “sexual immorality” in Revelation 2:14 refers to literal prostitution, such as the prostitution sometimes conducted in pagan temples, or to a spiritual adultery that leads astray from God.14 Sexual immorality was rife in the eastern Mediterranean—no less common than today. Nevertheless, in view of the frequent use of the image in the Hebrew Bible (e.g., 2 Kings 9:22; Jer. 3:9; 13:27; Ezek. 16:15–36; 23:7–35; Hos. 1:2; 4:12; 5:4; Nah. 3:4) and especially in view of the “prostitute” later in this book (Rev. 17:1, 15–16), the spiritual sense seems more likely here and in 2:20.15

Balaam’s promotion of food offered to idols means promotion of syncretism, in which God’s people were lured into participating in the cults of other deities.16 The most conservative Jewish people would resist eating food offered to idols even under the pain of death (4 Macc 5:2–3). Much of the meat sold in the marketplaces of ancient cities had been offered to pagan gods, but because such meat was not distinguished from meat that had not been offered, it might not be in view here.17

More to the point are the sorts of occasions where the meat was specifically known to have been sacrificed for a pagan deity, such as free food doled out at pagan festivals and dining in an idol’s temple (1 Cor. 8:10; m. A.Z. 2:3; 3:4), or, more likely for Christians here, participating in a guild banquet. The prophets could thus advocate compromise with the imperial cult, sharing food offered to Caesar; this would fit the experience of persecution in Pergamum (2:13).18 Yet because the same teaching appears in Thyatira with little hint of persecution, the temptation may be more subtle; it may reflect the general tendency to eat food offered to idols.

One of the most difficult forms of this temptation may have been its challenge to the Christians’ livelihood by denying their ability to participate in trade guilds. Trade guilds involved meals honoring a patron deity at their meetings,19 and especially in Thyatira it would be difficult to evade the trade guilds that so dominated city life. On the theological level, compromise with the imperial cult to save one’s life and compromise with the pagan activities of trade guilds to save one’s livelihood are all of one piece (cf. 13:17); they represent accommodation to the world at the expense of one’s total devotion to God’s standards. One who advocates such accommodation, like ancient Israel when unfaithful to Yahweh, is a “prostitute” (cf. 2:20; 17:1–2). By the early second century, Roman officials recognized Christian influence in refusal to eat sacrificial meat and responded harshly (Pliny, Ep. 10.96).

For Christians in Pergamum, to “overcome” means to continue steadfast in the face of opposition (2:13), but especially to stand against teachings of compromise with the world and to do their best to purge such teachings from their ranks (2:14–16).

To those who overcome Jesus promises both the “hidden manna” and a “white stone with a new name written on it” (2:17). The hidden manna probably alludes to a Jewish tradition that the manna deposited in the ark would be restored when the ark was restored in the end time (tos. Kip. 2:15). Although Jeremiah had explicitly declared that the original ark would never be restored (Jer. 3:16), early Jewish tradition declared that the ark and the temple vessels were hidden and would be recovered in the messianic era.20 John soon learns that the heavenly ark will be revealed (11:19), but for him the manna probably symbolizes especially the new exodus (cf. 12:6, 14) and God’s promise of eternal sustenance without labor (7:17; 22:2).21 This promised manna also contrasts starkly with the idolatrous food for which Balaam’s followers seem prepared to compromise their future reward (2:14).22

The meaning of the white stone is more debated, because people used stones in various symbolic ways; often such a tessera or small block of stone or ivory contained inscribed words or symbols.23 Revelation could draw here on a variety of nuances (cf. 17:9–10), but its setting may help us decide which are most likely. A contrast with Asiatic paganism is possible; the sacred totem of Cybele, the prominent Phrygian Mother Goddess, was a black stone.24 More likely, however, people used pebbles as admission tokens for public assemblies or festivities; the occasion here would be the celebration of heaven and the new manna of the messianic banquet (7:9; 19:9).25 Perhaps the most significant allusion is a reference to some ancient courtrooms, where jurors voted for acquittal with a white stone and for conviction with a black one. Here a capital case is probably in view (2:13), and Jesus will overturn the verdict of the Pergamum Christians’ persecutors at the final judgment when he declares both life and the second death (2:13; 20:12–14; cf. Acts 7:56–60).26

This pebble may also be white to symbolize eternal life or purity from sin (Rev. 3:4–5, 18; 4:4; 6:11; 7:9, 13–14). Practical considerations also support a white stone for inscribing a name; although most building materials in Pergamum were of dark brown granite, that city used white marble for its inscriptions.27 Pagan deities sometimes gave worshipers new names to signify a new identity (just as parents named children shortly after birth).28 In Israel’s own history, a change of name was often associated with a promise (see, e.g., Gen. 17:5, 15; cf. 17:4, 9, 20).

The new name alludes here to Isaiah 56:5 and especially 62:2, which promises that God will give his people a new name, removing their shame (62:4); this fits the time of the new Jerusalem and new creation (65:15–19). The new name may represent a new description of a person’s identity (cf. Rev. 3:1, 5), but in the context of Revelation more likely the hidden name of God (3:12; cf. 2:13; 3:8; Isa. 43:1) and the Lamb (14:1; 19:12–13, 16), which they will bear forever (22:4).

Bridging Contexts

A WARNING AGAINST assimilation. Although the issue of persecution is central to Revelation, those who emphasize that the book as a whole warns against assimilation with the world are also correct. As one scholar notes, “The Apocalypse of John has pastoral relevance in any context where Christian assimilation into a culture with a non-Christian ethos is an issue.”29

We should be careful, of course, to distinguish between appropriate interaction with culture and compromise with it. Paul as a first-century missionary readily spoke the language of his culture (adapting, for instance, Stoic models to promote his case in Rom. 1:19–32), and had friends who were high-ranking citizens regularly involved in pagan civic religion (Acts 19:31). The warnings against intimate relations with unbelievers (Ps. 1:1; Prov. 13:20) caution against imbibing the world’s values, not against being with others to promote Christ’s values (Matt. 11:18–19; Luke 15:1–2). Joseph (Gen. 41:45; 47:22, 26) and Daniel (Dan. 2:24; 4:19) both worked within and showed respect for their colleagues and kings in a pagan culture, and Jeremiah told the exiles to seek the good of the land where God had placed them (Jer. 29:7). But we need to make sure that we are influencing the world with the kingdom’s values, not embracing the world’s values where they conflict with those of the kingdom.

In some parts of the world, Christian parents (sometimes taught by Western missionaries that God no longer heals today) take their children to witch doctors to secure healing.30 Although most Western Christians today do not have to deal with literal idols, the analogy with the temptations we face is so straightforward as to be almost transparent—if we have the courage to face it. The problem with an idol is not the artwork, monotheism is not “one God or less,” and pagan ideologies can include the atheistic premises of secular materialism no less than the blatant naming of other gods. In North America we do not confront emperor worship per se, but we have plenty of idols, whether materialism (Matt. 6:24) or celebrities who receive more attention than many people give to God.31

When we seriously examine Jesus’ teachings and parts of Acts to discern ideal models for the church, we find there Christians intensely committed to evangelism and other ministry, using all their resources and paying whatever price necessary to accomplish the task (e.g., Luke 14:26–35; Acts 4:32). When we compare most of North American Christianity today, we see Christians deeply committed to their own material advancement, spending countless hours each week on entertainment, yet far less on learning God’s Word. Studies indicate that the vast majority of “evangelical” Christians today never share their faith with non-Christians in the sense of explaining salvation to them.32 If we read our culture in light of Scripture rather than the reverse, dare we doubt that the church is sorely in need of spiritual awakening? Balaam and Jezebel no longer represent factions within the church; they dominate it, and Revelation’s only solution for us is repentance (2:16, 21–22).

Although only a faction of the church has succumbed to such teachings (2:14–15), Jesus tells the entire church that he has this against them and then calls on it to repent (2:16). In other words, if we choose to look the other way when apostasy is occurring, then we must share the Lord’s reproof.

Contemporary Significance

ANTIPAS AND CHRISTIAN suffering today. Because Revelation mentions only the martyrdom of Antipas, probably few Christians had already been martyred when Revelation was being written. If the churches of Asia were like many of us, they may have been hoping and praying that Antipas would prove the final martyr. But Revelation warns that suffering is coming; the gospel always involves suffering (Mark 13:9–10; 2 Tim. 3:12). If we pray for the Lord’s return we must also be ready to spread the gospel, a prerequisite for that return (Matt. 24:14; Rom. 11:25; cf. 2 Peter 3:9, 12, 15); yet with cutting-edge evangelism inevitably comes suffering (Matt. 10:16–39; Col. 1:23–24), right through the final generation (Rev. 6:9). Revelation prohibits us loving our lives more than his gospel; it summons us to follow the model of Antipas as faithful witnesses, no matter what the cost.

As noted above, Jesus seems especially patient with and encouraging to a suffering church (2:8–11; 3:7–12), but having suffered does not automatically validate everything we do or believe. The churches in Pergamum and Thyatira, tolerating invitations to compromise, merited Jesus’ rebuke. Yet their temptations were all too like the sorts of choices all Christians living in non-Christian societies must make.

If my brother’s wedding banquet is catered by priests from the adjoining idol’s temple, do I eat the idol meat or offend my brother? Do I publicly refuse food offered to some deity for Caesar, thereby incurring the suspicion of disloyalty to the state? Because potential applications of this passage’s warning against compromise are so many, we can at most provide samples; each pastor, Bible study leader, and individual guided by God’s Spirit will recognize the most appropriate applications for his or her own settings.

The temptation to compromise. Once we move past the particulars of the situations in Pergamum and Thyatira, the principle of compromise can be expressed in innumerable situations. When I taught Revelation for a college Sunday school class roughly a decade ago, the churches in Pergamum and Thyatira generated more discussion than all the rest of Revelation combined. Students identified with the pressures to compromise in areas of sexual morality, chemical addictions, silent accommodation of the reigning secularism of their campus, and so forth. Whether Revelation employs the image of sexual immorality literally or figuratively, the image still serves as a warning against literal immorality: Sexual immorality, like any other sin, compromises God’s will, and in our culture certainly accommodates the values of the world.33

The Bible is firm against all premarital or extramarital sex and often uses the term “prostitute” to describe one who practices any such behavior (17:5); after all, if it is despicable for a person (even one in great need) to sell his or her sexuality for a little money, is it any better to give it away without charging anything?34 Biblical sexual ethics require us to save our bodies for those who will value us not for a small fee but who will regard us as persons of worth equal to themselves and commit their lives to us.

But we also need to be sensitive to those who have lived differently before they met Jesus, because all of us are dependent on his forgiveness for our sins, whatever our sins have been (Mark 2:14–17; Luke 7:47–50; 15:1–32; John 4:16–26). Those still involved in immorality must also be reached in Christian love; they must learn how much God thinks they are worth. Contrary to the approval of his most religious contemporaries, Jesus ministered to prostitutes (Matt. 21:31–32); a Christian woman I know with the same ministry has encountered the same sorts of criticisms from some Christians today. Thus, when we expound on sexual immorality in this passage, we should, as with other sins, make clear that we are warning against the sin rather than denying the efficacy of Christ’s blood for the past.

Sanctifying the world’s values. As a religious “prophet,” “Balaam” probably sanctified the values of the culture by providing theological justifications for them, such as, “Since an idol is really nothing, my worshiping it does no harm” (e.g., 1 Cor. 8:4). Like Balaam and Jezebel, we can sanctify worldly values by attributing them to God. During the Civil Rights Movement, the Bible and Christianity were exploited by Klan leader Sam Bowers to justify violent Klan activity, while popular Baptist pastor Douglas Hudgins used them to ignore the segregation and violence being promoted even by members of his church.35 By contrast, the civil rights struggle revealed Christians committed to stand against the values of their culture: Black activist Fannie Lou Hamer both forgave her white persecutors and stood for justice in Jesus’ name, and white Mississippian Ed King shared in the suffering of his black colleagues, recognizing that “if a person calls himself a Christian, he must give up everything and follow Christ.”36

In short, when we value what the world does instead of valuing the kingdom, we forfeit our role as witnesses for Christ’s kingdom in this world. Too much of Western Christianity has become indistinguishable from our culture, too much of our “evangelistic” effort geared toward persuading the world that we are acceptable because we are just like them. If we affirm what the world affirms, or, more often, live as the world does, to what then do we invite them in conversion that differs from what they already experience?

Revelation called the churches in Asia to wake up to the reality that the world and the church were locked in a fight to the death, and that the church could “overcome” only by rising to the battle and risking martyrdom in its uncompromising witness for Christ. In modern Western Christendom one is almost tempted to wonder if the battlefield has shifted, so that the line now lies between a remnant of radical, witnessing Christians on the one hand, and the rest of the church with the world on the other. Many disciples suffering for the gospel in other parts of the world mourn how quickly the United States has shifted from what was in many respects a source of spiritual blessing to the world to a self-centered mission field exporting sexual promiscuity and greed through its entertainment media far more than its Christians are exporting the gospel.

The very image of “Balaam” reminds us that it was compromise with paganism that brought ancient Israel defeat, and compromise with pagan values will do the same for us. But wherever possible, biblical prophets ended on a note of encouragement. Perhaps not all Pergamum Christians will “overcome,” but those who do and avoid the idol food will be admitted to a heavenly banquet with an unlimited supply of manna. It is easier for Christians to avoid compromise with the seductive values of the world when we keep in mind the much better world God has in store for us someday. Whatever we must overcome, he has a better hope in store for us.