12:1 The discourse now turns toward application of the theological truths of chapters 1–11 to daily Christian living and life together in the church.

“Appeal” and “brothers” convey Paul’s personal care. “Mercies” serves as a bridge back to the nine mentions of “mercy” in chapters 9–11. God’s mercy is an impetus and framework for daily living. Presentation of our “bodies as a living sacrifice” suggests a fulfillment of the intent behind certain OT sacrifices, which signified the worshiper’s personal commitment to God. Such sacrifice, then and now, needs to be “holy and acceptable to God.” “Spiritual [logikēn] worship” can be understood as worship motivated and ordered in a reasoned way based on the careful understanding of the gospel and its implications presented in chapters 1–11.

12:2 “World” is the age in which we live, with its conviction and loyalties. Christian commitments entail loyalties to higher truths than are commonly affirmed or believed. As thinking (“mind”) is “transformed” by the gospel and its teaching (cf. 6:17), believers subject what they learn to the “testing” of everyday life circumstances. The result is discernment of God’s will—what is “good and acceptable and perfect”—in everyday situations. Christian life is lived out not primarily in the hour or two spent “at church” but in the other 166 weekly hours spent in the home, workplace, or at leisure.

12:3 The “grace given” to Paul refers to his teaching insights and responsibilities as an apostle (cf. 1:5; 15:15; 1 Cor. 3:10; Gal. 2:9; Eph. 3:2, 7; Col. 1:25). There is also a “grace given” to God’s people (Rom. 12:6; 1 Cor. 1:4; 2 Cor. 8:1; 2 Tim. 1:9). These divine bestowals, beginning with cleansing from sin by Christ and renewal through him, result in sober self-assessment.

The “measure of faith that God has assigned” to each person is the portion of trust in Christ they possess, nurture, and are dedicated to pursue. Coming verses describe the forms of faith expression God provides and summons. These expressions center on the appropriation and demonstration of God’s love.

12:4–5 These verses describe the sanctity of unity in diversity among members of the church—God wills, unifies, and directs this diversity and its expression. Graced with divine wisdom (v. 3), Paul uses the integrated human body yet diversity of our body parts to illustrate.

The human body has various components that do not all function the same way (v. 4). Similarly, the “one body in Christ” called the church is made up of multiple individuals (v. 5), yet they are “members one of another.” They form a coherent unified social organism.

“In Christ” reminds us that Christ is the living presence holding the body together. The church is not just religious people but the mysterious manifestation of God the Son, interceding at the right hand of the Father (8:34), by the Spirit who dwells in and among those who believe in Christ (8:10–14). Paul in 1 Corinthians 12 offers more detailed discussion of how the body functions, the importance of each member for optimal body flourishing, and the role of the Holy Spirit and his gifts in personal and corporate Christian life.

12:4–5 These verses describe the sanctity of unity in diversity among members of the church—God wills, unifies, and directs this diversity and its expression. Graced with divine wisdom (v. 3), Paul uses the integrated human body yet diversity of our body parts to illustrate.

The human body has various components that do not all function the same way (v. 4). Similarly, the “one body in Christ” called the church is made up of multiple individuals (v. 5), yet they are “members one of another.” They form a coherent unified social organism.

“In Christ” reminds us that Christ is the living presence holding the body together. The church is not just religious people but the mysterious manifestation of God the Son, interceding at the right hand of the Father (8:34), by the Spirit who dwells in and among those who believe in Christ (8:10–14). Paul in 1 Corinthians 12 offers more detailed discussion of how the body functions, the importance of each member for optimal body flourishing, and the role of the Holy Spirit and his gifts in personal and corporate Christian life.

12:6 “Let us use them” is a reasonable translation augmentation, but it is not explicit in the original. Paul essentially just says, “Now we have varying gifts according to the grace given to us,” then goes on to list some examples. That Paul felt the need to tell the Romans to use their gifts is a projection.

That there are slightly different lists in other passages (1 Cor. 12:4–11, 27–31; 1 Pet. 4:10–11) suggests that the “gifts” (Gk. charismata) named here are representative and not a precise or exhaustive inventory. “Prophecy” tops the list. Paul defines this elsewhere: “the one who prophesies speaks to people for their upbuilding and encouragement and consolation” (1 Cor. 14:3). “In proportion to our faith” could suggest using the gift in keeping with one’s personal maturity and spiritual understanding. Or it could mean that the words one utters need to be consistent with “our faith” understood as the accepted and normative apostolic teaching (cf. Rom. 6:17). Both senses may be intended.

12:7 “Service” is translated from diakonia, a generic term from which the word “deacon” is derived. Paul calls the relief collection he is carrying to Jerusalem his “service” (15:25; cf. 2 Cor. 8:4; 9:1, 12). His apostolic “ministry” is likewise diakonia, a “ministry of reconciliation” (2 Cor. 5:18). In general, “service” describes the readiness and willingness to tackle tasks that glorify God and assist others. While every Christian should be quick to “serve” in this way, some have God-given aptitude to be unusually effective in certain service capacities.

Another person may find encouragement from God to teach. The word for “teaching” (didaskalia) occurs nineteen times in Paul’s writings. It refers to doctrinal instruction that comports with Scripture. A teaching gift implies the humility and discipline to learn Christian teaching well and then recognized effectiveness in communicating that information in a convincing and moving way. Jesus’ teaching in the Gospels provides numerous good examples.

12:8 The remaining four gifts in Paul’s list are found in this verse. “Exhortation” (Gk. paraklēsis) is a word that can also mean encouragement, comfort, or appeal. The church needs members with the ability to bolster, console, or rally others depending on their role, their need, or the challenge they currently face. “The one who contributes” suggests a person with financial means who feels compunction from God to share generously for the sake of others’ needs and the gospel’s furtherance.

“The one who leads” would be someone with a charisma (“gift”) for inspiring and organizing others to join forces for the sake of a common goal. Jesus stresses and models humility as essential for leadership in his name (Mark 10:42–45). “Cheerfulness” is paired with “acts of mercy,” perhaps because showing mercy to the truly needy can be draining and lead to despair or resentment. Part of this gift is finding refreshment in Christ to renew one’s capacity to extend care in demanding situations.

12:9 From here to 13:10 (the final mention of love in this section) Paul can be thought of as paralleling what he writes in 1 Corinthians 13. There he described what love is. Beginning here in Romans 12 Paul describes what love looks like when lived out by the Christian.

“Let love [agapē] be genuine” can be thought of as the heading for all of the exhortations to follow. They are phrased as commands in English; in Greek (until v. 14) they are participles—“abhorring what is evil, holding fast to what it good,” and so forth. Whatever form expressions of love may take, those expressions must respect the moral dimension of each situation. An act of love that commits evil is a contradiction in terms. Love grasps “what is good” and clings to it tenaciously.

12:10 Paul’s indirect exhortations continue; perhaps he is here exercising the first gift listed in verse 8. Agapē love (v. 9) between believers takes the form of philadelphia (“brotherly affection”). They express this affection with true devotion, not objective detachment. An emotional bond is implied; something is wrong when believers feel less care for each other than they do for their household dog or cat.

“Outdo one another” (proēgeomai; the word occurs only here in the NT) does not suggest conceited one-upmanship but exemplary behavior, honoring others in service in ways that lead others to do likewise. This is Paul’s expectation for Titus when he writes, “Show yourself in all respects to be a model of good works” (Titus 2:7).

12:11 While zeal can be misguided (10:2), as a component in expressing love (12:9) it is indispensable. Slothful love suggests dead formality, going through the motions, which would be hypocrisy. “Fervent” suggests inner intensity showing itself in what might appear to be extreme; Jesus’ washing the disciples’ feet (expressing his love; John 13:1) is an illustration. “Serve the Lord” renders the participial expression “serving the Lord”; when this is the explicit motivation, action is heartfelt (because the Lord infuses it by his Spirit) and focused and attains its goal.

12:12 Paul’s writings contain the verb for “rejoice” over two dozen times. The noun for “hope” occurs thirty-six times. Here hope is the sphere, and perhaps the cause, for rejoicing to take place. Love can promote a buoyancy, a confidence in God, that equates with hope and facilitates joyfulness.

“Tribulation” (Gk. thlipsis) has already featured in a sequence including “sufferings” (thlipsis) in 5:3 and leading to hope (5:4) associated with God’s love. In many parts of the world currently, as sporadically through the history of the church, Christian confession brings tribulation that demands courageous patience, which could also be translated “perseverance.” Consistency in prayer is called for frequently in Paul (Eph. 6:18; Phil. 4:6; Col. 4:2; 1 Tim. 2:1) and modeled as well (Rom. 1:10; Eph. 1:16; 1 Thess. 1:2). A sign of the presence of God’s love (cf. comment on Rom. 12:9) is when his people are found fulfilling the desire to pray.

12:13 In the early church association with Christ could cause social ostracism, including loss of livelihood (e.g., Heb. 10:32–35). As Paul composed Romans he was in possession of a large sum of money (the Jerusalem collection) destined for the relief of impoverished Jewish believers in Judea. Offerings for the needy, especially needy believers (Gal. 6:10), are an expression of God’s love. “Seek to show” could also be translated “earnestly pursuing”; sharing meals and lodging with strangers was part of the culture of the early church in many locations (Heb. 13:2; 1 Pet. 4:9; 3 John 5–8). This can also be understood as honoring Jesus’ call to meet the needs of the hungry and thirsty (Matt. 25:31–46).

12:14 In this verse Paul shifts to the imperative form for both words translated “bless.” Jesus calls for love of enemies and prayer for persecutors (Matt. 5:44). Paul describes the policy of the apostles in these words: “When reviled, we bless; when persecuted, we endure” (1 Cor. 4:12). It can be tempting to answer persecution with venom and spleen, but the gospel calls for and enables a higher way. Granted, there are always decisions to be made based on context; in some situations Jesus’ command was “When they persecute you in one town, flee to the next” (Matt. 10:23). Sometimes Paul endured arrest and harsh treatment (Acts 16:19–24); at other times he followed Jesus’ counsel and moved to the next town when persecution seemed likely (Acts 17:10).

12:15 From this verse until “leave it” in verse 19, Paul uses nonimperatival verbal forms for his directives as he continues to sketch the constraints of love (v. 9) in the Christian life. Loving others means identifying with them in good times and bad. With those rejoicing, co-rejoicing is called for. When believers encounter those devastated by loss or grief, weeping with them can be a sign of godly love. Jesus embodies this when ministering to Mary and Martha in their grief at Lazarus’s death (John 11:33–35), just as his appearing at the wedding in Cana (John 2:1–11) and replenishing the wine stock indicates rejoicing with revelers.

12:16 As experienced churchgoers know, Christian congregations can be havens of strife. Paul fears this for his Roman readers (16:17). Love, though, makes living “in harmony with one another” possible. Granted, sometimes divisions have to be endured, addressed, and transcended (1 Cor. 11:19). The gospel in one’s life should eliminate or at least minimize “haughty” attitudes and behavior. Those of perceived higher standing will take pains to “associate with the lowly,” which is easier if one avoids being “wise in [one’s] own sight.” Jesus voices a similar sentiment with “Judge not, that you be not judged” (Matt. 7:1).

12:17 The word order here stresses that to “no one” should a believer repay evil with evil. Seeking revenge, perhaps discreetly, may be highly tempting—consider the folk saying “I don’t get mad, I get even”—but it is not a tool for deployment in the household of faith. “Give thought” suggests anticipating trying situations and reasoning in advance ways to respond that onlookers will recognize as large-hearted, not petty or selfishly vindictive. Behind Paul’s counsel may be Jesus’ reminder that “if you do not forgive others their trespasses, neither will your Father forgive your trespasses” (Matt. 6:15).

12:18 Jesus also teaches “Blessed are the peacemakers” (Matt. 5:9). Paul’s call to “live peaceably with all” is at least an indirect application of this. “So far as it depends on you” is an important qualifier, as is “if possible.” Paul’s letters, which often address challenges to apostolic teaching and practice, show that pushback may be necessary. Previous chapters of Romans offer numerous examples of issues in which Paul argues vigorously for one solution and not others; living peaceably does not mean compromising nonnegotiable truths of the faith or giving way to practices or customs that violate Christian teachings and practice. Many understandings of “tolerance” in the postmodern West fail to preserve the Christian backbone Paul presupposes.

12:19 “Beloved” intensifies Paul’s appeal, as does the command “leave it to the wrath of God.” Paul exemplifies this in his later writings: “Alexander the coppersmith did me great harm; the Lord will repay him according to his deeds” (2 Tim. 4:14).

What “avenge yourselves” means can be a complex question in parts of the world in which military-scale violence is used to murder Christian populations; Paul’s later reference to the God-ordained role of the civil (or even military) sword (Rom. 13:3–4) indicates that he would not counsel all Christian populations to acquiesce readily to their own extermination. Paul’s counsel here is primarily oriented toward personal ethics, not political policy or counter-jihad strategy.

12:20 The advice in this verse confirms that Paul is thinking in broad terms of a Christian’s showing kindness to someone unfriendly to the gospel and perhaps to that Christian personally. He does not envision sending out invitations to violent criminals so they can wreak havoc on one’s household or family if they wish. Paul draws on Proverbs 25:21–22. Simple home hospitality can shame a detractor into reconsidering his unjust resentment toward the Christian and toward God. This is a form of love for the lost, which Jesus practices in his table fellowship with less-than-savory figures who may oppose him vehemently (cf. Luke 7:36–50). In the case of Zacchaeus table fellowship becomes a means of grace for a man who is by occupation a social outcast and by his own admission a cheat (Luke 19:1–10).

12:21 Paul prescribes an offensive strategy as a defense against evil. It is reminiscent of his directive to “walk by the Spirit, and you will not gratify the desires of the flesh” (Gal. 5:16). Proactive appropriation of gospel grace leading to a life ruled by fervent love for God—amply illustrated in Romans 12:9–20—will ensure that good as God measures it, and not evil, will be attaining the upper hand in the Christian’s life.

13:1 The apostle explicitly restates his theme of love in verses 8–10. But there is no reason to suppose he has left it as chapter 13 begins. As 12:9–21 above details love’s priorities in the Christian’s personal dealings, 13:1–7 deals with love in the sense of rendering to Caesar what is Caesar’s (Matt. 22:21)—itself a form of love for both God and others (Matt. 22:37, 39).

Part of Christian integrity is civic responsibility. This begins with a sense of obligation to honor “governing authorities.” This sense, in turn, has a theological basis: God’s sovereignty as expressed in his establishment of the institution of human governments.

13:2 Paul speaks here in broad terms. In general, “the authorities” act legally and uphold the social order “God has appointed.” “Judgment” is the penalty for noncompliance, because God has delegated punishment to these authorities (cf. comment on 13:4).

When authorities overstep, believers may need to “obey God rather than men” (Acts 5:29). They may need to say to a king whose command is blasphemous, “We will not serve your gods or worship the golden image that you have set up” (Dan. 3:18). Jesus defied the extrabiblical Sabbath ordinances of his time. Paul’s counsel in Romans 13 assumes a government acting within its God-appointed parameters. When it does not, other measures may be in order.

13:3 This statement proves true in many social orders much of the time in much of the world. “Do what is good, and you will receive [the ruler’s] approval” is in general sound advice. Christians should have no part in illegal activities no matter how socially acceptable those activities may be.

On the other hand, in Islamic settings Christian witness may be declared illegal. In Communist China there are prohibitions against public worship and Christian instruction of one’s own children. Paul is not envisioning such developments but assuming the general framework of Roman law and order in force for his Roman audience.

13:4 “God’s servant for your good” restates that God rules this world in part through delegating government to civil servants. Membership in God’s kingdom does not dissolve one’s responsibility to Caesar or (in the modern setting) the constitutional order of one’s country, state, county, city, or town. “Carries out God’s wrath” legitimizes use of force sufficient to thwart the schemes of evildoers. It also suggests that God’s wrath (1:18; 2:5, 8; 3:5; 4:15; 5:9; 9:22) is inflicted not only in apocalyptic manifestation at the last day but along the way in the form of painful legal consequences for lawless acts.

13:5 Governmental tyranny is a potential evil, but so is anarchy. “Subjection” means recognition of authority and compliance with it. Paul’s counsel here is not isolated:

Remind them to be submissive to rulers and authorities, to be obedient, to be ready for every good work . . . (Titus 3:1)

Be subject for the Lord’s sake to every human institution, whether it be to the emperor as supreme . . . (1 Pet. 2:13)

“For the sake of conscience” indicates that respect for government should not be mere outward conformity but an expression of inner conviction rooted in one’s relationship to God.

13:6–7 Even something as mundane as paying taxes is an expression of obedience to God and love for him, since taxes are a practical means of financing the governments God establishes (v. 1). Jesus payed taxes, though on one occasion his means to do so were supernaturally provided (Matt. 17:24–27). But the compliance of the sinless Son of God with tax laws confirms God’s potential sanction of them (some may be unjust or misguided and need repeal or reform; that process is also part of government).

“Ministers” in Romans 13:6 is not diakonoi, the more common Greek term for servants, but leitourgoi, a word that can connote mediation of the sacred. Tax collection and collectors in the Roman world were often corrupt; the work of God’s love even in that unjust social order is reflected in the prominence of tax collectors in the Gospels (nearly two dozen mentions). They were a special focus of Jesus’ ministry (Levi or Matthew was one of the twelve; Matt. 10:3; Luke 5:27) even though the Lord was criticized for his association with them (Matt. 9:11; 11:19).

“Taxes” and “revenue” are financial obligations. In the Roman world many civil authorities (whose power was mingled with state-sanctioned Roman religion) demanded “respect” and “honor” as part of their compensation. Failure to show honor might be punishable.81

13:6–7 Even something as mundane as paying taxes is an expression of obedience to God and love for him, since taxes are a practical means of financing the governments God establishes (v. 1). Jesus payed taxes, though on one occasion his means to do so were supernaturally provided (Matt. 17:24–27). But the compliance of the sinless Son of God with tax laws confirms God’s potential sanction of them (some may be unjust or misguided and need repeal or reform; that process is also part of government).

“Ministers” in Romans 13:6 is not diakonoi, the more common Greek term for servants, but leitourgoi, a word that can connote mediation of the sacred. Tax collection and collectors in the Roman world were often corrupt; the work of God’s love even in that unjust social order is reflected in the prominence of tax collectors in the Gospels (nearly two dozen mentions). They were a special focus of Jesus’ ministry (Levi or Matthew was one of the twelve; Matt. 10:3; Luke 5:27) even though the Lord was criticized for his association with them (Matt. 9:11; 11:19).

“Taxes” and “revenue” are financial obligations. In the Roman world many civil authorities (whose power was mingled with state-sanctioned Roman religion) demanded “respect” and “honor” as part of their compensation. Failure to show honor might be punishable.81

13:8 Paul returns to the theme of love he began in 12:9. “Owe” is related to the word “owed” in 13:7, showing that Christian love is expressed in due submission to civil authority. Paul’s point is that believers should view their societal obligations as obligations of love—and fulfill them by doing them.

“Has fulfilled the law” confirms that Paul’s earlier teaching on the law, including at 10:4 (“Christ is the end of the law”), does not signal the termination of the relevance of God’s law for Christian thought and behavior. It is, after all, in the law that the love commands (for God, Deut. 6:5; for neighbor, Lev. 19:18) are first formulated.

13:9 Paul lists various laws from the Decalogue to show what they have in common. Compliance with them is essentially showing love for one’s neighbor. This does not mean laws against adultery, murder, theft, or coveting are no longer valid or needed. For one thing, they offer abiding light for civil law, in which they were frequently encoded in the West until recently. Rather, these specific laws (“and any other commandment,” rightly interpreted, contained in Scripture) instruct believers in living lovingly. Law teaches what sorts of behavioral responses God expects, and by his Spirit empowers, when people appropriate his grace in the gospel.

13:10 The first clause of this verse could also be translated, “Love does not do evil to one’s neighbor.” This is the agapē love Paul has had in mind since 12:9, not generic human affection. Outside of God’s transforming grace and moral direction as expressed in Scripture, human “love” often does wrong to others since it can be an expression of selfishness (as when a parent “loves” a child by dominating him) or a means of exploitation (as when an intimate partner commits fornication or adultery under the pretext of “love”).

But the divine love poured out through the gospel message (5:5) takes a shape that reflects God’s moral character and promotion of others as these emerge in the course of OT and NT revelation. To love in such ways, as God has loved and commanded, “is the fulfilling of the law.” It is also a helpful pointer toward what Paul meant when he wrote earlier, “Do we then overthrow the law by this faith? By no means! On the contrary, we uphold the law” (3:31). We uphold it in large measure by our grace-generated love and loving.

13:11 Paul will shortly conduct a lengthy discussion of love and acceptance of others in congregational life (14:1–15:7). But now he will transition from love (13:10) to motivation for loving moral probity in everyday life (13:11–14).

That motivation is, first, eschatological. “Know the time [kairos]” denotes knowledge of the quality of the moment, not of a specific chronological location. Paul calls for readiness in view of the “hour” of the Lord’s return. Lethargy, complacency, and spiritual torpor are all enemies of living before the Lord in love. “Salvation is nearer to us now than when we first believed” in the sense that (1) we are now nearer to dying and being with the Lord than when we first believed, or (2) the time of the Lord’s return is now nearer than when we believed. Either way, a certain urgency should inform believers’ lives. As Jesus put it, “You also must be ready, for the Son of Man is coming at an hour you do not expect” (Luke 12:40).

13:12 Here Paul further underscores the need for alertness. Eschatology drives ethics. It is easy to suppose that the current status quo is normative into the indefinite future. But Paul labels the present time as “night” and indicates that it has had its day. Believers do and should repudiate the current passing night by rejecting “works of darkness.” They do so by donning the proper attire and armaments (“armor of light”). This consists, minimally, of proper behavior (v. 13) and Christological orientation and focus (v. 14).

13:13 To “walk properly” means to carry out everyday affairs in a manner that is fitting. “As in the daytime” means living as if all we do were public knowledge, not needing to hide various components of our lives. Paul lists examples of such behavior to avoid. “Orgies” translates a word with connections to excessive revelry like our Mardi Gras, in combination with “drunkenness,” which needs no definition. Illicit sex and excessive alcohol are a combination to be avoided if to “walk properly” is the goal.

Paul moves from a party setting to “sexual immorality” and the outlook (“sensuality”) that encourages it. Finding deeper gratification in God than in sensual excess is difficult but possible; this verse taken as a personal word from God (which it is) can work mightily. “Quarreling and jealousy,” like sexual and sensual excess, are signs that God is distant.

What Paul names as out of bounds in this verse is expanded in the “works of the flesh” listed in Galatians 5:19–20. Sometimes believers need to be reminded of what the Spirit delivers them from, lest they permit “the flesh” to reestablish itself in their lives.

13:14 The command to “cast off the works of darkness” (v. 12) and the short list of things to avoid (v. 13) are means to an end. That end is union with Christ and a life reflective of his liberating, loving dominance. Christology (after eschatology) is the second great ethical motivator in this section.

“Put on” is a metaphor drawing on the dressing room or, we could say, the locker room: as an athlete puts on spikes or pads or a jersey for the contest, so believers “put on the Lord Jesus Christ.” They invoke him and practice the spiritual disciplines (worship, prayer, Scripture study, obedience) and loving behaviors (cf. 12:9–13:8) that invite his life-altering presence by the Spirit (8:11). When we prepare a welcome, he shows up.

“Make no provision” means to devote no forethought or planning to, nor to daydream about, these things. “The flesh” is not our physical body but the proclivity to drift away from God that lurks, weakening but still potent, in the Christian’s soul, as the Romans 7 struggle dramatizes. Christ’s robust presence suppresses the flesh by filling and fulfilling believers with the Spirit and his sweet fruit (Gal. 5:22–24), which occupy not merely their spiritual reflection but their bodily pursuits.

14:1 As explained above, “one who is weak” is a person with reservations about what he may eat, probably due to the influence of Jewish food laws. “In faith” implies a weakness in personal exercise of faith; it could also be translated “in the faith” and point to weak understanding of Christian teaching or to “the faith” that by definition Christians affirm. Possibly the term carries both connotations.

In a congregational setting in which there are both weak and strong (as Paul understood himself to be; 15:1), the weak are to be affirmed rather than treated as targets for correction. Their presence is not a call to “quarrel over opinions.”

14:2 In the Roman world some food purchased in the marketplace may have come from a pagan temple, where it had been sacrificed or offered to false deities. Strong believers understood they could “eat anything” because idols are human figments (1 Cor. 8:4), having no real existence.

Weak believers did “not all possess this knowledge. But some, through former association with idols,” if they ate “food . . . offered to an idol,” would end up with a damaged conscience (1 Cor. 8:7). To be safe they would stay away from meat (possibly sacrificed in a temple) and eat “only vegetables.”

14:3 From among the two contrasting bodies of conviction, God accepts people of both persuasions who trust in Christ. His acceptance should lead people in the body of Christ to accept each other. “Despise” implies looking down upon; the strong feel superior, and so do the weak. “Pass judgment” suggests condemnation based on what the abstainer (or nonabstainer) thinks God’s law requires.

14:4 Paul’s language is brusque, challenging both sides with equal vehemence. “Before his own master” could be rendered “to his own Lord” and is emphatic, asserting the highly personal nature of each person’s relationship to God, or to Jesus Christ if “Lord” refers to him (as it most often does in Paul’s usage). This verse points to Paul’s conviction of Christ’s real presence in and among the church, as he is able to confront and stabilize members as their individual need may require.

14:5 It is not only food regulations that are an issue between the weak and strong; “one day as better than another” fits well with the view that some are following a Jewish calendar, and perhaps combining both extra Sabbath observance and kosher food requirements. This issue, too, should not become a deal breaker for church fellowship; individual liberty should be granted in such matters of secondary importance.

14:6 Paul assumes faithful gospel confession of Christ as Lord on the part of all concerned. “Gives thanks to God” likely refers to the standard table blessing. Both groups give thanks in their eating; what divides them is what they are willing to eat. Since weekly Christian gatherings may have included a common meal, including observance of the Lord’s Supper, strong contrasting convictions about diet would be on visible display and hold potential for deep division, as actually occurred at Corinth (1 Cor. 11:20–22).

14:7–8 Even granting differing convictions on matters such as diet and dates (or calendar), what unites members of the body of Christ is more fundamental and profound than what divides them. Believers in the Lord Jesus “live to” him, meaning to live for his sake, and it is likewise “to the Lord” that they die.82 The present and future of all believers are in the hands of Christ, the head of the church. His ownership and oversight of all that his followers are and do should have a leveling effect in their regard for each other. Compared to his exalted status, there is negligible vertical separation between the strong and weak parties.

14:7–8 Even granting differing convictions on matters such as diet and dates (or calendar), what unites members of the body of Christ is more fundamental and profound than what divides them. Believers in the Lord Jesus “live to” him, meaning to live for his sake, and it is likewise “to the Lord” that they die.82 The present and future of all believers are in the hands of Christ, the head of the church. His ownership and oversight of all that his followers are and do should have a leveling effect in their regard for each other. Compared to his exalted status, there is negligible vertical separation between the strong and weak parties.

14:9 Christ the Lord’s death and resurrection are the core convictions uniting members of his body. He is Lord of all God’s people, both dead and still living. “The living” are relevant because they are the ones Paul is addressing. But why does he mention Christ as “Lord . . . of the dead”? Possibly some of the weak link their diet and calendar scruples to ancestral practices going back to Moses (as some viewed the ongoing need for circumcision just a few years before Paul wrote Romans; cf. Acts 15:1, 5). The weak could fear breaking fellowship with the Lord by deviating from practices their ancestors associated with faithfulness to the Lord. The strong could affirm that Jesus declared a shift in kosher laws (Mark 7:19). Both groups could affirm that their view of the Lord was more faithful, depending on how one adjudicates the issue. Paul’s appeal transcends such differences.

14:10 With the same directness as in verse 4, Paul challenges those tempted to divide over these matters. Jesus himself cautions against condemnation of others (Matt. 7:1). “Pass judgment” is the action of the weak; “despise” is that of the strong in Romans 14:3. Both groups and indeed all believers (including Paul: note “we”) will “stand before the judgment seat of God.” This is called the “judgment seat of Christ” in 2 Corinthians 5:10. In this respect they are interchangeable—Paul is a monotheist, not a ditheist.

14:11–12 As so often in Romans, Paul appeals to Scripture, here Isaiah 45:23. The Lord’s judgment will be impartial (because there is no injustice in him; Rom. 9:14) and universal (“every knee . . . every tongue”). The Isaiah context places emphasis on the solidarity of people before Yahweh: “Assemble yourselves and . . . draw near together” (Isa. 45:20); “Take counsel together” (Isa. 45:21); “Turn to me and be saved, all the ends of the earth” (Isa. 45:22); “In the Lord all the offspring of Israel shall be justified and shall glory” (Isa. 45:25). God’s towering transcendence should produce a sense of humble unity among his worshipers.

In Romans 14:12 Paul refers to the coming judgment in order to discourage people from acting as judge in their current church setting. Judgment is God’s prerogative, not ours. This does not mean that discernment is impossible (John 7:24) or that moral distinctions necessary for church discipline are ruled out (1 Cor. 5:9–13; 2 Thess. 3:6–12; Titus 3:10). Paul is talking about secondary, not primary, matters.

14:11–12 As so often in Romans, Paul appeals to Scripture, here Isaiah 45:23. The Lord’s judgment will be impartial (because there is no injustice in him; Rom. 9:14) and universal (“every knee . . . every tongue”). The Isaiah context places emphasis on the solidarity of people before Yahweh: “Assemble yourselves and . . . draw near together” (Isa. 45:20); “Take counsel together” (Isa. 45:21); “Turn to me and be saved, all the ends of the earth” (Isa. 45:22); “In the Lord all the offspring of Israel shall be justified and shall glory” (Isa. 45:25). God’s towering transcendence should produce a sense of humble unity among his worshipers.

In Romans 14:12 Paul refers to the coming judgment in order to discourage people from acting as judge in their current church setting. Judgment is God’s prerogative, not ours. This does not mean that discernment is impossible (John 7:24) or that moral distinctions necessary for church discipline are ruled out (1 Cor. 5:9–13; 2 Thess. 3:6–12; Titus 3:10). Paul is talking about secondary, not primary, matters.

14:13 Paul moves from what is to be avoided—judgment on one another—to a positive measure. The verb for “pass judgment” and the verb for “decide” are the same (Gk. krinō); Paul employs wordplay by using the same word in different senses. The positive move is to purpose never to trip up a fellow believer by placing a “stumbling block” (proskomma) or “hindrance” (skandalon) in his or her way.

In a similar situation Paul advised the Corinthians, “Take care that this right of yours does not somehow become a stumbling block [proskomma] to the weak” (1 Cor. 8:9). The new emphasis he is proposing is the need to be guided by the other believer’s best interest rather than one’s own sense of freedom in the gospel. Paul explores what this does and does not mean below.

14:14 Paul implies that he is among those he considers “strong.” He has a firm conviction grounded in his relationship with Christ that Jewish food laws and their clean/unclean restrictions are no longer binding. Not only does Jesus teach this; Peter’s vision (Acts 10) and subsequent interaction with Cornelius confirm that Peter should not declare unclean what God is now giving his people permission to partake of freely. Paul is living out this same conviction.

This is where the weak can stumble: their own misguided conscience can make them feel guilty when objectively they are not. Any particular food is “unclean for anyone who thinks it unclean.”

14:15 “Walking” is a metaphor for living one’s life. Christians’ lives should reflect God’s love in all they do. If I flagrantly eat a pepperoni pizza while dining with a Christian friend who has converted from Islam and cannot stomach eating pork, my brother is grieved and I have not walked in love. The fact that Christ died for this brother should motivate me to order a pork-free pizza instead. I can pray that in coming years this brother’s dietary scruples will move him in the direction of less rigor in an area where Scripture declares freedom. In the meantime, my job is to accept and affirm the brother, not pressure him to see things my way. The Lord can open his eyes if that is a priority for him.

14:16 “What you regard as good” describes the freedom to eat that at which the weak bridle. Or it could be the food itself that one feels free to eat. But if a strong believer flaunts his freedom from food customs, this will be “spoken of as evil” by those whose conscience will not permit them to eat. The result could be dissension and division in the church, to be avoided whenever possible since a major goal in the church is to “maintain the unity of the Spirit in the bond of peace” (Eph. 4:3).

14:17 Paul is speaking comparatively: the kingdom of God and its chief concerns (like love for one another and unity in the church) are higher priorities than food or drink. Where “righteousness and peace and joy in the Holy Spirit” are present, the strong and the weak in a congregation will not be clashing and perhaps damaging (1) each other and (2) the mission of the church by their attitudes and actions.

This is the only reference to the kingdom of God in Romans. Paul’s usage “does not veer from anything found about Jesus and the kingdom in the Gospels; it merely applies dominical example and instruction83 to the challenging issues that Romans 14 must deal with.”84

14:18–19 “Thus” could refer back to “in the Holy Spirit.” “Acceptable” (Gk. euarestos) is often translated elsewhere as “pleasing” (2 Cor. 5:9; Eph. 5:10; Phil. 4:18; Col. 3:20; Titus 2:9). Serving Christ in the Holy Spirit pleases God and meets human approval. In a congregational setting in which the strong and the weak may be creating tensions, bringing people together is essential. This comes about by serving Christ in the Holy Spirit.

With the right strategy in place (Rom. 14:18), the proper goal can be envisioned (v. 19): pursuit of congregational harmony—the things that make for “peace.” Such peace will also involve “mutual upbuilding.” Paul will repeat the priority of “upbuilding” (older translations spoke of “edification”) in 15:2. He tells the Corinthians, “Strive to excel in building up the church” (1 Cor. 14:12) and “Let all things be done for building up” (1 Cor. 14:26). Church and particularly worship are not occasions for self-promotion but opportunities to seek the best for fellow believers.

14:18–19 “Thus” could refer back to “in the Holy Spirit.” “Acceptable” (Gk. euarestos) is often translated elsewhere as “pleasing” (2 Cor. 5:9; Eph. 5:10; Phil. 4:18; Col. 3:20; Titus 2:9). Serving Christ in the Holy Spirit pleases God and meets human approval. In a congregational setting in which the strong and the weak may be creating tensions, bringing people together is essential. This comes about by serving Christ in the Holy Spirit.

With the right strategy in place (Rom. 14:18), the proper goal can be envisioned (v. 19): pursuit of congregational harmony—the things that make for “peace.” Such peace will also involve “mutual upbuilding.” Paul will repeat the priority of “upbuilding” (older translations spoke of “edification”) in 15:2. He tells the Corinthians, “Strive to excel in building up the church” (1 Cor. 14:12) and “Let all things be done for building up” (1 Cor. 14:26). Church and particularly worship are not occasions for self-promotion but opportunities to seek the best for fellow believers.

14:20 “Destroy” is the opposite of “upbuilding” (v. 19). To fail to build up is to tear down. The “work of God” could be in reference to either the weak or the strong, whoever might be damaged in the struggle Paul is seeking to defuse here. Or it could refer to the whole congregation.

“Everything is indeed clean,” followed by the qualification, means the second sentence in this verse is likely addressing the self-perceived strong. Sure, they are theologically correct in their determination that they can eat what the weak reject. But no church can flourish solely by the principles of the strong if the weak are being harmed in the process. “It is wrong” to bull ahead in proud self-justification when the effect is deleterious to others.

Of course, it would also be wrong if the shoe were on the other foot and the weak were lording their scruples over the strong.

14:21 To make his point unmistakable, Paul explicitly states what the strong need to affirm and hold themselves to in regard to this issue. He uses eating and drinking as examples because those, along with the calendar, have been issues he has chosen to deal with in this chapter. But the same principle would extend to all analogous issues and activities.

The matter may not always be simple. To avoid his being a stumbling block to Jews, Paul required Timothy (a Jew by birth) to be circumcised (Acts 16:3). But when Paul faced pressure to require Titus (a Greek by birth) to be circumcised, he refused. The decision of whom to mollify by curtailing one’s own rights and whom to defy in order to avoid compromising a gospel principle can be difficult. Jesus scandalized many, for example, by his healings on the Sabbath. In the end the judge of actions is God himself, not principles that may be generally valid but may need to be adjusted in given circumstances.

14:22 To “keep between yourself and God” means to preserve integrity in one’s walk before him. It is possible to condemn oneself by approving what is wrong (even if not committing the wrong). Paul has already given an example: people who not only sin (bad in itself) but then (even worse) “give approval to those who practice” such sins (1:32). Blessed is the strong believer who does not condemn himself by approving actions that harm others. Blessed are the weak who do not take (illicit) delight in condemning the strong for the liberties they think the strong are taking.

14:23 “Whoever has doubts is condemned” applies to both weak and strong. Each party needs to act in good faith as they understand God’s will for them in a particular issue. “Whatever does not proceed from faith is sin” means that all of our thoughts and deeds are connected to our relationship with Christ, whom we confess as “Lord of all” (10:12). When we ponder and act in indifference to his will, or even rejection of it, sin is the inevitable result.

15:1–2 Verse 1 makes clear that Paul numbers himself among the strong. But the strong have not been gifted with that understanding and confidence for their own sake. Rather, their insight obligates them to “the weak,” plagued with “failings.” An obvious parallel here is Jesus. He was infinitely strong yet placed himself at the disposal of the lowly (Mark 10:45). Followers of Jesus, Paul is saying, ought like him “not to please” themselves in their dealings with others in the congregation.

In Romans 15:2 Paul reasons from the general principle of verse 1. The obligation of the strong group amounts to a challenge to “each of us.” The goal for every single believer is to please one’s neighbor, to “build him up”—probably two ways of saying the same thing. “Please” means not some cheap amusement but an act or gesture that will meet a real need or enhance spiritual stability. Paul’s letter to the Romans is an example of a prodigious effort for their sake. If the Romans get behind Paul’s Spanish mission (v. 24), they will be building him up, not because he is weak but because they recognize their role in sending forth a missionary who is strong.

15:1–2 Verse 1 makes clear that Paul numbers himself among the strong. But the strong have not been gifted with that understanding and confidence for their own sake. Rather, their insight obligates them to “the weak,” plagued with “failings.” An obvious parallel here is Jesus. He was infinitely strong yet placed himself at the disposal of the lowly (Mark 10:45). Followers of Jesus, Paul is saying, ought like him “not to please” themselves in their dealings with others in the congregation.

In Romans 15:2 Paul reasons from the general principle of verse 1. The obligation of the strong group amounts to a challenge to “each of us.” The goal for every single believer is to please one’s neighbor, to “build him up”—probably two ways of saying the same thing. “Please” means not some cheap amusement but an act or gesture that will meet a real need or enhance spiritual stability. Paul’s letter to the Romans is an example of a prodigious effort for their sake. If the Romans get behind Paul’s Spanish mission (v. 24), they will be building him up, not because he is weak but because they recognize their role in sending forth a missionary who is strong.

15:3 Paul’s basis for the counsel of verses 1–2 is not moral but Christological. He recognizes what Jesus said of himself, “He who sent me is with me. He has not left me alone, for I always do the things that are pleasing to him” (John 8:29). Since Christ lived for the Father’s pleasure, his followers have the resources through faith in him to please God by seeking to please their neighbor (Rom. 15:2).

Paul finds support for Christ’s attitude and practice in the latter half of Psalm 69:9 (Ps. 68:10 LXX). The first half of the verse contains words cited in John 2:17 to describe Jesus: “Zeal for your house has consumed me.” The latter half pictures the Son as bearing the “reproaches” of those whose apprehension of matters is so badly flawed that they reproach God.

15:4 This verse is programmatic for Paul’s use of Scripture throughout Romans. While Scripture has its import for the times and places first intended, it is written for successive generations too, since God’s wisdom and Spirit transcend localities and times. The Spirit who first inspired Scripture renews its message in subsequent generations.

“Instruction” is a reminder that learning (or discipleship) is a central component of the Christian faith. “Hope” is important because motivation is required for daily and long-term perseverance. The grammar indicates that “endurance” and the “encouragement of the Scriptures” are two different but related things. The connection between endurance and hope has appeared before: “We rejoice in our sufferings, knowing that suffering produces endurance, and endurance produces character, and character produces hope” (5:3–4). The dozens of Scripture citations in Romans illustrate how valuable God’s written Word is for “encouragement” at every step along the way of Christian thought, obedience, and worship.

15:5 The tie between what Scripture gives according to verse 4 (endurance, encouragement) and what God gives according to verse 5 bears out how intimately intertwined are God and his written Word. He can furnish what is needed for Roman congregations and others to “live in . . . harmony” in the ways for which Paul has been calling since 14:1. “In accord with” indicates that Christ provides the norm. No one more perfectly typifies the truly “strong,” and no one was more ready to bear with “the weak,” even to his own detriment.

15:6–7 “With one voice” renders the Greek word homothymadon, used only here in Paul but at numerous key points in Acts.85 While Romans 14 argues against lockstep behavior in the Christian congregation, the gospel rightly received produces unity on essentials in the form of joint glorification of the “God and Father of our Lord Jesus Christ.”

Romans 15:7 describes what verse 6 calls for: the need to “welcome one another.” This is an imperative to put in practice the extensive exhortation to mutual acceptance extending back to the previous chapter. To “glorify . . . God” is to cultivate open hearts toward others of markedly different conviction (though still within the circle of apostolic teaching) in the church.

Filling out his earlier statement concerning that which is “in accord with Christ Jesus” (v. 5), Paul points to the fact that “Christ has welcomed you” as the precedent for congregational cohesion, with the goal that our welcoming response be “for the glory of God.” This was already an ancient insight in Paul’s time: “Behold, how good and pleasant it is when brothers dwell in unity!” (Ps. 133:1). Jesus expressed the thought like this: “By this all people will know that you are my disciples, if you have love for one another” (John 13:35). This is not simply horizontal or social appreciation. It reaches to the heavens: “By this my Father is glorified, that you bear much fruit and so prove to be my disciples” (John 15:8).

15:6–7 “With one voice” renders the Greek word homothymadon, used only here in Paul but at numerous key points in Acts.85 While Romans 14 argues against lockstep behavior in the Christian congregation, the gospel rightly received produces unity on essentials in the form of joint glorification of the “God and Father of our Lord Jesus Christ.”

Romans 15:7 describes what verse 6 calls for: the need to “welcome one another.” This is an imperative to put in practice the extensive exhortation to mutual acceptance extending back to the previous chapter. To “glorify . . . God” is to cultivate open hearts toward others of markedly different conviction (though still within the circle of apostolic teaching) in the church.

Filling out his earlier statement concerning that which is “in accord with Christ Jesus” (v. 5), Paul points to the fact that “Christ has welcomed you” as the precedent for congregational cohesion, with the goal that our welcoming response be “for the glory of God.” This was already an ancient insight in Paul’s time: “Behold, how good and pleasant it is when brothers dwell in unity!” (Ps. 133:1). Jesus expressed the thought like this: “By this all people will know that you are my disciples, if you have love for one another” (John 13:35). This is not simply horizontal or social appreciation. It reaches to the heavens: “By this my Father is glorified, that you bear much fruit and so prove to be my disciples” (John 15:8).

15:8 While Paul issues directives when needed, his heart gravitates toward exposition of God’s grace and love in Christ. His preceding instruction on strong–weak relations is rooted in how “Christ became a servant to the circumcised.” He was the strong; they with their attachment to regulations and rituals often showed themselves to be weak even as believers in the fledgling churches.

Yet Christ bore with the weak, not compromising his message but exposing himself to their misunderstanding and abuse in order to “show God’s truthfulness.” He not only taught truth but was a walking billboard for what that truth must look like when lived out (as he lived it) in the power and love of God.

That this was in order to “confirm the promises given to the patriarchs” confirms the organic connection between OT promise (recall 9:4–5) and its fulfillment in Jesus, who came not to start a new religion but to vindicate and renew what God long ago set in motion.

15:9 Paul provides a second reason “Christ became a servant” (v. 8): “that the Gentiles might glorify God for his mercy.” Glorifying God can seem nebulous, but here it is highly concrete, harking back to how the Roman audience needed to close ranks, as Christ had showed solidarity with each of them individually and corporately (v. 6).

The Scripture citation (Ps. 18:49 [Ps. 17:50 LXX]; see also 2 Sam. 22:50) pictures David praising God “among the Gentiles.” This prefigures what the Son of David came to perform and enhance among the people of God of all ethnicities.

15:10–12 Each of these three verses, like verse 9, contains the word “Gentiles,” a dog whistle for some Jews in Paul’s time (Acts 22:21–22; see also Acts 11:1–2). Romans 15:10 cites the conclusion of the Song of Moses (Deut. 32:43 LXX). In that passage the skies above and the nations (“O Gentiles”) below join in celebration “with his people.” Paul reads this as an adumbration in Moses’ writings that God was angling toward the reconciliation of all peoples, Jews and Gentiles, since Moses’ time (and back to Abraham before).

Romans 15:11 draws on Psalm 116:1 LXX (Ps. 117:1 in English Bibles). There “Gentiles” and “the peoples” (meaning “a multiethnic assembly”86) join in praising the Lord. In the LXX the next (and last) verse of this psalm describes the reason for such praise: “Because his mercy became strong toward us, and the truth of the Lord endures forever.” “Toward us” points to the solidarity of all who receive God’s mercy, not just one ethnic grouping. Reference to the “truth of the Lord” may have informed Paul’s reference to “God’s truthfulness” in Romans 15:8. This is not an abstract rational principle but a reconciling reality that results in rejoicing.

Verse 12 contains the remarkable fourth straight Scripture citation backing up Paul’s claim that at the core of Christ’s mission was the praise of God that Christ would elicit from the Gentiles (v. 9). This time Paul references Isaiah, quoting Isaiah 11:10 LXX (which does not vary widely from English versions that translate the Hebrew). There the “root of Jesse,” defined as he who “stands up to rule the nations,” will be the hope of the nations (or Gentiles). “In him” implies not distant admiration but personal trust.

15:10–12 Each of these three verses, like verse 9, contains the word “Gentiles,” a dog whistle for some Jews in Paul’s time (Acts 22:21–22; see also Acts 11:1–2). Romans 15:10 cites the conclusion of the Song of Moses (Deut. 32:43 LXX). In that passage the skies above and the nations (“O Gentiles”) below join in celebration “with his people.” Paul reads this as an adumbration in Moses’ writings that God was angling toward the reconciliation of all peoples, Jews and Gentiles, since Moses’ time (and back to Abraham before).

Romans 15:11 draws on Psalm 116:1 LXX (Ps. 117:1 in English Bibles). There “Gentiles” and “the peoples” (meaning “a multiethnic assembly”86) join in praising the Lord. In the LXX the next (and last) verse of this psalm describes the reason for such praise: “Because his mercy became strong toward us, and the truth of the Lord endures forever.” “Toward us” points to the solidarity of all who receive God’s mercy, not just one ethnic grouping. Reference to the “truth of the Lord” may have informed Paul’s reference to “God’s truthfulness” in Romans 15:8. This is not an abstract rational principle but a reconciling reality that results in rejoicing.

Verse 12 contains the remarkable fourth straight Scripture citation backing up Paul’s claim that at the core of Christ’s mission was the praise of God that Christ would elicit from the Gentiles (v. 9). This time Paul references Isaiah, quoting Isaiah 11:10 LXX (which does not vary widely from English versions that translate the Hebrew). There the “root of Jesse,” defined as he who “stands up to rule the nations,” will be the hope of the nations (or Gentiles). “In him” implies not distant admiration but personal trust.

15:10–12 Each of these three verses, like verse 9, contains the word “Gentiles,” a dog whistle for some Jews in Paul’s time (Acts 22:21–22; see also Acts 11:1–2). Romans 15:10 cites the conclusion of the Song of Moses (Deut. 32:43 LXX). In that passage the skies above and the nations (“O Gentiles”) below join in celebration “with his people.” Paul reads this as an adumbration in Moses’ writings that God was angling toward the reconciliation of all peoples, Jews and Gentiles, since Moses’ time (and back to Abraham before).

Romans 15:11 draws on Psalm 116:1 LXX (Ps. 117:1 in English Bibles). There “Gentiles” and “the peoples” (meaning “a multiethnic assembly”86) join in praising the Lord. In the LXX the next (and last) verse of this psalm describes the reason for such praise: “Because his mercy became strong toward us, and the truth of the Lord endures forever.” “Toward us” points to the solidarity of all who receive God’s mercy, not just one ethnic grouping. Reference to the “truth of the Lord” may have informed Paul’s reference to “God’s truthfulness” in Romans 15:8. This is not an abstract rational principle but a reconciling reality that results in rejoicing.

Verse 12 contains the remarkable fourth straight Scripture citation backing up Paul’s claim that at the core of Christ’s mission was the praise of God that Christ would elicit from the Gentiles (v. 9). This time Paul references Isaiah, quoting Isaiah 11:10 LXX (which does not vary widely from English versions that translate the Hebrew). There the “root of Jesse,” defined as he who “stands up to rule the nations,” will be the hope of the nations (or Gentiles). “In him” implies not distant admiration but personal trust.

15:13 The mention of “hope” in previous verses (12:12; 15:4, 12) makes the reference to it natural here. Paul wishes on his (largely Gentile) audience the “joy and peace” pointed to in the OT references just cited. This elevation of soul comes from God through faith “in believing”; in the overall context of Romans this can only mean faith in Christ.

As often in Paul’s reasoning, the reality of what lies in God and comes from him through the gospel—in this case, hope—leads to a desired outcome: “that by the power of the Holy Spirit you may abound in hope.” This verse is powerful indirect testimony to the Trinity. It is also testimony to God’s desire that his people not merely persevere but “abound” in what the gospel offers them by way of realization and celebration of a primary fruit of personal salvation: social reconciliation.