12:1–2 The Lord’s Passover instructions begin by identifying that the current month, in which the Israelites will leave Egypt, will become the start of their year (v. 2). Their calendar will thus begin with a reminder of the Lord’s redemption.

The month is called Abib (13:4) and later Nisan (Est. 3:7). (The former name is Canaanite in origin; the latter, Babylonian.) It falls sometime in our March or April.

12:3–13 On the tenth of the month238 each household is to take a lamb from among its sheep or goats (Ex. 12:3). If that provides too much meat for the household, neighbors are to share a lamb (v. 4). The lamb cannot have physical blemishes, which would make it less valuable and improper to use as one of the Lord’s sacrifices (cf. Mal. 1:8), and it must be male, perhaps because it is given in place of a firstborn son.239 It also must be a year old, which seems to be ideal for sacrificial animals.240 The lamb is not to be slaughtered until the fourteenth day of the month (Ex. 12:6a). No reason is given for the four-day wait, and there is no scholarly consensus around the various guesses proposed.241

The lamb is to be slaughtered at twilight (v. 6b), perhaps since that is the beginning of night, the time when the Lord will pass through the land and therefore when the lamb’s blood will play its role. The blood is to be smeared with hyssop branches on each house’s doorposts and lintel (vv. 7, 22), signifying to the Lord that he should not enter that door to kill the firstborn since the lamb’s lifeblood stands in its place. The Lord will therefore “pass over” that home in peace (cf. vv. 13, 23).

As for the meat, it is to be eaten roasted, not raw or boiled (vv. 8a, 9a). The prohibition against consuming blood (Gen. 9:4) explains why the meat cannot be raw; the reason it cannot be boiled—which is allowed for in other sacrifices (Lev. 6:28; 1 Sam. 2:13; 2 Chron. 35:13)—is less clear.242 In any case the entire lamb is to be eaten, accompanied by unleavened bread and bitter herbs (Ex. 12:8b, 9b). (Some societies are not used to eating the entire animal, but in many societies this is more common.) The unleavened bread commemorates the haste with which the Israelites leave Egypt (cf. vv. 34, 39). The word for “bitter herbs” is related to the verb describing how the Egyptians had made the Israelites lives “bitter” with hard labor (1:14), suggesting these herbs are to remind the Israelites that the Lord is delivering them from a bitter existence.

All the meat is to be eaten that night and any leftovers burned (12:10). Once more, no reason is given, but the same requirement applies to peace offerings of thanksgiving (Lev. 7:15), and the context suggests the meat is considered holy and is to be burned to lessen the chance of its becoming defiled. While eating, the Israelites are to be ready to leave at a moment’s notice (Ex. 12:11a), dressing as though ready for a journey (cf. 2 Kings 4:29) and eating the food quickly, as though in anxious haste.

The text then gives the sacrifice’s name, which in Hebrew is pesakh (Ex. 12:11) and is translated “Passover” for reasons the Lord explains momentarily. But first he repeats his earlier description, stating he will strike dead the firstborn among both man and beast (v. 12; cf. 11:4–5). He adds that this will be an act of judgment “on all the gods of Egypt” (12:12).243 The Egyptians believed in many gods. While previous strikes may have highlighted that certain ones of their gods were powerless before Yahweh (cf. comments on 7:8–13; 7:14–19; 8:7–11; 8:20–23; 9:10–11; 9:13–14; 9:29–30; 10:21), the crushing devastation of this strike will make clear they are all powerless before him, so that all might know that Israel’s God, Yahweh, is the true God. None can deliver from his hand. Yahweh is God; the other gods are not (Deut. 4:35).

The Lord immediately notes, however, that when he sees the blood on the Israelites’ homes he will not strike down their firstborn. Instead, he promises to “pass over” them (Ex. 12:13), using the Hebrew verb pasakh, which explains why the sacrifice is called pesakh (= Passover).244 Indeed, this is “the Lord’s Passover” (v. 11), that is, the Passover to be celebrated unto him, with him as the focus (cf. 13:5; Lev. 23:34, 41). Every time the Israelites celebrate this sacrifice, or simply mention its name, they have an opportunity to remember the Lord’s merciful salvation.

12:14–20 When the Passover is celebrated in the future, it is to be followed immediately by the seven-day Feast (or Festival) of Unleavened Bread. This feast’s purpose is to remember “this day” (Ex. 12:14), that is, the coming day on which the Lord will lead Israel out of Egypt (v. 17). The Lord’s salvation is the foundation of his people’s existence and must be kept in the forefront of their thoughts (vv. 14, 17b).

The festival is to take place over seven days, and any bread eaten during that time must be unleavened (v. 15). As later verses explain, this commemorates the fact that the Israelites depart so quickly when the Lord delivers them that they must take unleavened dough with them (vv. 34, 39; cf. Deut. 16:3). Those who refuse to follow these instructions are effectively saying that the event they are commemorating—the Lord’s redemption—is of no importance. They are to be “cut off” from their people (Ex. 12:15), a penalty that could range from exile to death.245 This is a punishment corresponding to the crime: having spurned the Lord’s redemption of Israel, these people are removed from Israel’s midst.

The festival is to begin and end with a “holy assembly” (v. 16), implying a communal celebration (cf. Lev. 23:8), and because it is holy no work is to be done, allowing people to focus on celebrating before the Lord. The only exception is the food-preparation work necessary for the festival (Ex. 12:16).

The Lord then repeats most of what he has just said in order to underscore it. This festival is to be observed throughout the coming generations to celebrate the Lord’s deliverance (v. 17). It will be seven days long, with the start and end times specified,246 and no leavened bread will be eaten during this time—whether by native Israelite or resident alien247—upon penalty of exile. Only unleavened bread can be eaten (vv. 18–20).

12:21–27a Moses now passes the instructions to Israel’s elders (v. 21), who will in turn inform the people. Since Moses would need to say more than what is here in order for the Israelites to keep the Passover properly, the narrator presumably summarizes, focusing on two key themes.

The first is the importance of the blood to deliver the Israelites from the last strike (vv. 21–23). Using hyssop, the Israelites are to apply the blood to the doorframe and keep everyone safe within the home until morning. The Lord is passing through Egypt that night and will not allow “the destroyer” to enter such homes to kill. If the translation “the destroyer” is correct, it could refer to an angel who works alongside the Lord and does the actual killing (cf. 2 Sam. 24:15–16). Alternately, it is possible to translate that the Lord will not allow “destruction” to enter such homes (cf. the use of the same term in Ex. 12:13). In either case the lamb’s lifeblood stands in place of the firstborn’s to protect it.

The second theme is the importance of observing this rite in the coming generations (vv. 24–27a). Doing so is an opportunity to teach future generations about the Lord’s deliverance “so that they should set their hope in God and not forget the works of God, but keep his commandments” (Ps. 78:7). Properly understood, rituals are to be not dry and dusty but rich with story, celebrating who the Lord is and what he does for his people as they look to him in faith. In these ways they help our children to see that God is worthy of love and obedience.

12:27b–28 As the Israelites did when Moses first came and told them the Lord was aware of their suffering, they now “bowed their heads and worshiped” (Ex. 12:27b; cf. 4:31). In short, they believe the Lord is about to deliver them, praise him for it, and then make the appropriate preparations (12:28).

12:29–33 On the fourteenth the Lord goes through the land at night, killing all Egyptian firstborn, along with the firstborn animals (v. 29; for apologetic issues related to the death of the firstborn cf. comment on 4:21–23). Egyptians at all levels of society cry out in great anguish (cf. comment on 11:4–8a); no one is exempt (12:30).

Pharaoh immediately summons Moses and Aaron and commands them to leave: “Go, serve the Lord, as you have said. Take your flocks and your herds, as you have said, and be gone” (12:31b–32a).248 The repetition of “as you have said” underscores that he is finally yielding to the Lord’s commands through Moses and Aaron. For the moment his hard heart has been broken. His further request—“And bless me also!” (v. 32b)—implicitly acknowledges that Yahweh, whom Moses and Aaron serve, is the one with power to curse and to bless. Pharaoh knows he needs Yahweh’s help.

Similar to Pharaoh, the Egyptian people also urge the Israelites to leave and to do so quickly, “For they said, ‘We shall all be dead’” (v. 33). They need the Israelites to leave, lest these punishments from Yahweh continue to befall them, another acknowledgment that Israel’s God is sovereign over the events taking place.

12:34–36 The Israelites depart in such haste that “the people took their dough before it was leavened” (v. 34), meaning either before they have added leaven to it or before the dough has had a chance to rise. The fact that the dough is referred to later as unleavened (v. 39), even after it presumably would have had time to rise, supports the former understanding. In either case the detail underscores how hastily the Israelites leave and also explains why eating unleavened bread will commemorate their departure. The additional note about their carrying their kneading bowls on their shoulders in their cloaks (as though in a backpack) shows the importance of equipment for daily bread-baking in that day and age (v. 34).

In keeping with the Lord’s command (3:22; 11:1) the people have asked the Egyptians for gold and silver jewelry and clothing (12:35). The Lord grants the Israelites favor in the Egyptians’ eyes, who by this point are awestruck by the strength of Israel’s God (cf. 8:19; 9:20; 10:7) and therefore give the Israelites “what they asked. Thus they plundered the Egyptians” (12:36). As noted earlier, this is appropriate compensation for years of bitterly hard service (cf. 3:16–22). What is more, such plundering—equivalent to stripping valuables off dead soldiers —normally occurs only after bloody battle (cf. 1 Sam. 31:8; 2 Sam. 23:10). In this case, however, the Israelites do not even have to raise a finger to fight. The Lord has fought the battle on their behalf.

12:37–42 The Israelites “journeyed from Rameses [toward] Succoth, about six hundred thousand men on foot, besides women and children” (v. 37). (The Israelites’ travels toward the Promised Land are described in summary form in Num. 21:10–20; 33:3–49; Deuteronomy 1–3.) The word translated “on foot” (Hb. ragli) is used elsewhere to refer to foot soldiers (1 Sam. 4:10; 2 Sam. 8:4; etc.), giving the announcement a military feel. As noted in the Introduction, the number 600,000 may be deliberately inflated, as common in ancient Near Eastern military contexts (and thus expected by an Israelite audience).249 Inflated or not, however, the point is clear: in keeping with his earlier promises to their forefathers the Lord has indeed caused the people to be fruitful and increase greatly (Ex. 1:7; cf. comments there).

Along with the Israelites and their animals—which would provide food and wool and could be used in sacrifice—is a “mixed multitude” of people (12:38), that is, people from different nationalities. This observation undoubtedly explains to the original audience the presence of such people in their midst (cf. Num. 11:4).250 It also reads as a continued affirmation of the Lord’s covenant promises: not only has he made Israel a great nation, but he is also bringing blessing to other nations through them (Gen. 12:3).

The narrator returns to the Israelites’ unleavened dough (Ex. 12:39; cf. 12:34), explaining they make it into “unleavened cakes” because they are driven out in such haste that they cannot delay, nor have they prepared the type of provisions one might gather ahead of a journey (cf. Josh. 1:11). The Israelites have known their departure was coming but are apparently surprised at just how quickly and forcefully the Egyptians demand that they leave. This, too, makes clear how devastating the final strike is to the Egyptian nation.

The section’s closing verses emphasize that the Israelites’ leave Egypt 430 years after entering there (Ex. 12:40–41). This is in keeping with the round number the Lord used earlier when telling Abram that his descendants would be afflicted in a foreign land for four hundred years but then would be delivered by the Lord and depart with “great possessions” (Gen. 15:13–14). Commentators are divided whether “on that very day” refers to the end of the 430 years (i.e., “430 years to the day, all the hosts”) or to the day of deliverance already mentioned (i.e., “after 430 years, on that very day of deliverance, all the hosts”). The use of the same phrase at Exodus 12:17, 51 with regard to the day of deliverance supports the latter. What is clear is that the Lord has delivered them. Indeed, just as he has kept vigil that night for the Israelites to lead them out of Egypt, so they are to keep vigil on this same night in the generations to come to honor him for what he has done (v. 42). This leads back to a discussion of how that night is to be kept (vv. 43–51).

12:43–50 Previous Passover instructions focused on properly choosing a lamb, killing it, applying its blood to the home, and eating it (vv. 3–13, 21–27). The instructions of verses 43–50 focus on who may join in the Passover celebration and are especially important considering that a “mixed multitude” leaves Egypt with Israel (v. 38).

The instructions first describe who can eat the meal. Since the Passover celebrates the Lord’s deliverance of his covenant people (Israel), only members of the covenant community can partake. This naturally includes Israelites and any of their household servants,251 who have been grafted into the household and received the covenant sign, circumcision (v. 44; cf. Gen. 17:12–13, 23).252 This also explains why non-Israelites and hired workers (who are not a part of the household) cannot partake (Ex. 12:43, 45): they have not received the covenant sign.

The text digresses briefly to discuss three laws related to the Passover lamb: it must be eaten in one house, none of it can be taken outside, and none of its bones may be broken (v. 46). The requirement to keep it in one house and not take it outside may be to assure it is eaten only by those qualified to do so, then disposed of properly (cf. vv. 3–4, 10). As for why the bones cannot be broken, there is no consensus. One of the only other biblical passages that mentions breaking animal bones does so in the context of preparing the meat for boiling (Mic. 3:3), so the prohibition here against breaking bones may be to underscore the commands of Exodus 12:8–9.253 Whatever the case, the apostle John cannot help but notice that Jesus, who is crucified at the time of the Passover, does not have his bones broken, a detail John includes to help us see that Jesus is the far greater Passover lamb (John 19:14, 33–36).

The text then returns to who may partake in the Passover, emphasizing that all Israelites must do so but also making clear that non-Israelites may if their males are circumcised (Ex. 12:47–48).254 Just as baptism today indicates a person has been joined to the church as a follower of Jesus, so circumcision indicates a person has joined Israel as a follower of Yahweh. When non-Israelites do so, they are therefore declaring their allegiance to Yahweh (and, in the case of their circumcised infants, their commitment to raise them as Yahweh’s followers). Once this occurs, they are to be considered as native Israelites as far as the Passover is concerned and treated as such when it comes to celebrating it (12:48–49; cf. Num. 9:14). Such a law, right at the start of the Israelites’ history as a nation, underscores that the Israelites are to be welcoming non-Israelites into their midst as Yahweh’s followers so that “all the families of the earth shall be blessed” (Gen. 12:3).

12:51–13:2, 11–16 After mentioning again the day of the Lord’s deliverance of the Israelites (v. 51), the text turns to other events meant to commemorate it: the consecration of the firstborn and the Feast of Unleavened Bread. The events are arranged as a chiasm.

(A) Consecration of the firstborn (13:1–2)

(B) The Feast of Unleavened Bread (13:3–10)

(A') Consecration of the firstborn (13:11–16)

The chiasm is held together by a focus on using these events to teach the next generation (cf. 13:8–10 with 13:14–16).

We may begin with the outer frames. The Lord commands that all firstborns, whether human or animal, be “consecrated” to him (v. 2), that is, “set apart” to him (v. 12). The word translated “set apart” elsewhere describes the transfer of property from one person to another (Num. 27:7, 8). In this context it means to give the child or animal to the Lord as his special property. For ritually clean animals this would be done by sacrificing them (cf. Ex. 13:15; 22:30). But ritually unclean animals (such as a donkey) could not be sacrificed, nor could children, since the Lord abhors human sacrifice (Deut. 12:31). Instead they are to be “redeemed” (Ex. 13:13), that is, a payment is to be given to the Lord so that ownership may be transferred back to the Israelites. For animals the payment is a lamb, which is ritually clean and presumably sacrificed.255 If no payment is given, the animal’s neck is broken, which has the practical effect of making sure God’s property is not put to profane use and is perhaps a nonsacrificial way of returning the animal’s life to God. For sons later texts explain that the Israelites are to offer a five-shekel payment to support the Lord’s work at the tabernacle (Num. 3:47–48; 18:16).

As with the Passover and the Feast of Unleavened Bread, this event is to be used to teach the next generation about the Lord’s powerful deliverance (Ex. 13:14–15; cf. 12:26–27; 13:7–8). Parents can explain to their children, “Pharaoh would not release us from slavery, so the Lord, in his great power, struck down all the Egyptian firstborn but spared all our firstborn because they were protected by the Passover lambs’ blood. By giving this protection, the Lord set apart our firstborn as belonging to him in a special way. Those rescued by the Lord belong to him.256 We acknowledge his ownership by giving our firstborn animals to him through sacrifice and by redeeming our firstborn sons from him by payment. But this helps us remember that it is not only our firstborn that belong to him. The Lord has described all of us as his ‘firstborn son’ (Ex. 4:23), so every time we perform the rite of the firstborn we remember that we, too, belong to him in a special way. For he has rescued all of us, and we owe him our wholehearted worship and love.”257

13:3–10 Between the commands about consecrating the firstborn the Lord issues further commands regarding the celebration of the Feast of Unleavened Bread (vv. 3–10; cf. the earlier commands of 12:14–20). He begins (13:3–4) with a summary highlighting the reason for celebrating the feast (to remember the Lord’s powerful deliverance), the feast’s main feature (eating unleavened bread), and the month in which it is to be held (Abib; cf. comment on 12:1–2). He then turns to more specific instructions (13:5–9).

The instructions look forward to the time when the Israelites will be in the Promised Land (v. 5),258 a notice that reminds us that what the Lord promises, he will do. The instructions then summarize earlier commands: unleavened bread is to be eaten seven days, with a feast to the Lord on the last day (vv. 6–7; cf. 12:15–16, 19–20). The instructions then add something new, focusing on how the feast is meant to strengthen and engender faith. Parents are to use this feast to tell their children about how the Lord has rescued his people and how they personally experienced it (13:8; cf. comment on 12:21–27a). In this way the feast is to serve “as a sign on your hand and as a memorial between your eyes”—like “tying a string around a finger,” we might say—so that “the law of the Lord may be in your mouth” (13:9), that is, so that the Israelites, by retelling the Lord’s amazing salvation, will in turn remember all that this redeeming God has commanded them, speak it to one another, and strive together to obey it (cf. Deut. 6:6–9). They owe such allegiance to him for a simple reason: “With a strong hand the Lord has brought you out of Egypt” (Ex. 13:9). He is their redeeming King and utterly worthy of their loyalty.