7:8–13 The previous section let us know a showdown was coming between Pharaoh and the Lord (Ex. 7:1–7). In this section the showdown begins. When Moses and Aaron provide a sign (vv. 8–10), Pharaoh’s servants seem to match it (vv. 11–12a), only to have their sign undone by that of Moses and Aaron (v. 12b), which makes clear where the real power lies. Pharaoh, however, remains unmoved from his rebellion (v. 13).

The Lord tells Moses and Aaron that Pharaoh will ask them for a miracle that proves that a god has sent them. Moses is therefore to command Aaron to throw down his staff, which will become a serpent (7:9; cf. 4:1–5). Moses and Aaron obey and the miracle occurs, but Pharaoh’s servants immediately imitate it (7:10–12). These servants are “wise men” and “sorcerers,” described generally as “magicians.” The latter word could also be translated “sorcerer-priest,”171 as the Hebrew term “appears related to an Egyptian word often used to refer to theological specialists in ancient Egypt, who studied their culture’s sacred literature and knew an array of secret charms, spell, and rituals.”172

But how do they perform the sign? Aaron’s act is truly miraculous.173 As for how the sorcerer-priests imitate it, commentators propose that their imitation is performed either by means of illicit supernatural powers or by some sleight of hand or snake-charming methods that make serpents stiff like rods and then enliven them by throwing them on the ground.174 However their imitation is actually accomplished, the sorcerer-priests present themselves as using their “secret arts” to access the power of Egyptian gods. This makes it even more significant that “Aaron’s staff swallowed up their staffs” (v. 12). Because staffs represent power and authority, this act shows the Lord’s superiority over the sorcerer-priests—and any Egyptian gods thought to empower them.

Nonetheless, Pharaoh’s heart continues in its stubborn rebellion, and he will not listen to Moses and Aaron, just as the Lord has warned (7:13; cf. 4:21).

7:14–19 Pharaoh’s hardened heart and refusal to obey the Lord (v. 14; cf. vv. 22–23) is a theme running throughout these chapters (8:15, 19, 32; 9:7; etc.), making clear that these chapters narrate a battle between Pharaoh, the most powerful of earthly kings, and Yahweh, the king of the universe. Yahweh is clearly the superior, bringing his punishing strikes on Pharaoh and his land at will. That Pharaoh never learns his lesson underscores the depth of his rebellion and pride.

In this case the Lord commands Moses to meet Pharaoh as the latter goes out to the Nile, perhaps to bathe (cf. 2:5). The setting is fitting, since the Nile will be the object of the Lord’s action. Moses must bring the “staff that turned into a serpent” (7:15), also known as the “staff of God,” by which he (or Aaron on his behalf) will perform signs (cf. 4:17, 20). Clearly, another sign is about to come.

Moses is to remind Pharaoh of the king’s disobedience and to warn him of the coming sign of judgment: the Lord will turn the Nile’s water to blood, its fish (a primary Egyptian food source) will die, and the Egyptians will be unable to drink its water (7:17–18).180 The very water in which the Egyptians were told to kill Israelite baby boys (1:22) now becomes water upon which the Egyptians can no longer depend to sustain life. All this will be a sign so that Pharaoh—who earlier boasted he did not know Yahweh (5:2)—will know clearly that Yahweh, the Hebrews’ God, is Lord of heaven and earth (7:17). Moreover, since the Egyptians personify the yearly inundation of the Nile as the god Hapi181 and also associate it “with the resurrection of [the god] Osiris,”182 it is easy to imagine how this sign shows Yahweh’s sovereign power over Egypt’s gods.

The Lord then tells Moses and Aaron how to bring the sign about and notes that the affected waters will go far beyond the Nile to include all surface waters in the land (7:19). He also focuses the judgment on the Egyptians (note the use of “their” throughout v. 19).183

The question of whether the waters turn to actual blood is debated. Several argue that this is phenomenological language—that is, it describes what happens with reference to how something looks to the naked eye, not how it actually is. (Compare the familiar “the sun rises,” which is how a sunrise appears even though the sun does not actually rise in the air). In support many cite Joel’s statement in a judgment context that “the sun shall be turned to darkness, and the moon to blood” (Joel 2:31). There “blood” refers not to actual blood but to the moon’s bloodlike red color. The same could be true in Exodus 7, with suggestions for what turns the water red ranging from red soil to algae (or both).184 But whether or not the water turns to actual blood, use of the term “blood” is a foreboding way to describe the water, especially given blood’s association with judgment and death (Deut. 32:42; Ps. 58:10; Isa. 49:26; etc.). What is more, the endpoint is the same either way: the water will be undrinkable, and this will be Yahweh’s doing.

7:20–23 Moses and Aaron obey, and the sign occurs (7:20–21). As they did before (vv. 11–12a) and will do again (8:7), Pharaoh’s sorcerer-priests imitate the sign (7:22a; presumably using water sourced as outlined in v. 24). But “ironically, all that the magicians can do is make matters worse: more snakes, more bloody water, more frogs!”185 As Houtman notes, “They cannot reverse the catastrophes, but only increase them, thus contributing to YHWH’s fight against Pharaoh.”186 Pharaoh misses the irony. His heart remains hardened, using the sorcerer-priests’ deed as an excuse (v. 22). Indeed, “he did not take even this to heart” (v. 23), meaning he does not apply his heart to learn what he should.187 Clearly Pharaoh has a heart problem.

7:24–25 Since all surface water has been turned to blood (v. 19), the Egyptians are forced to dig for fresh water, or perhaps for water that has been filtered through the earth and drained of whatever has made it red (v. 24). In either case it is exhausting work that lasts at least seven days (v. 25).188 But no word from Pharaoh comes, so the Lord prepares to strike Egypt again.

8:1–5 The Lord commands Moses both to repeat to Pharaoh the demand to let the Israelites go and worship the Lord (v. 1; cf. 5:1, 3; 7:16) and also to warn Pharaoh of the consequences for refusing: a pestilence of frogs (8:2). The frogs will show no respect of rank, making themselves at home in Pharaoh’s very bed! Everyone else will be similarly plagued, with frogs infesting the very implements used to make daily bread (v. 3). Pharaoh apparently refuses, and Moses tells Aaron to raise the staff of God over Egypt’s waters once more (v. 5; cf. 7:19).

8:6 Aaron obeys, and the frogs cover the land like a swarming green slime. The infestation afflicts the Egyptians but may also have symbolic value. In Israel frogs will be ritually unclean (cf. Lev. 11:10–12), as will their carcasses (Lev. 11:24–25), so Israelites may view the punishment as going beyond hardship to include ritual defilement (cf. Ex. 9:10–11). By the end of the sign the Egyptians and their homes are entirely defiled.189

8:7–11 Pharaoh’s sorcerer-priests imitate the sign—ironically causing more frogs to infest the land! What is worse, they cannot make the frogs leave. With his own bed full of frogs, Pharaoh promises to release the people if Moses and Aaron will plead to Yahweh—he uses the Lord’s proper name190—to remove the frogs (8:8). Pharaoh is beginning to “know/acknowledge” that only Yahweh can fix this problem (cf. comment on 5:1–9); Egypt’s king and gods are powerless before him.

Moses invites Pharaoh to name when he would like the frogs to leave (8:9).191 Pharaoh’s response of “Tomorrow” (v. 10a) could be understood as “By tomorrow,”192 the sense being, “Pray this is resolved by tomorrow!” Moses agrees but also makes clear that when this occurs—the resolution of a national infestation within twenty-four hours—it will be a sign so that Pharaoh may know there is no one like Yahweh; he alone is God (v. 10b).193 Pharaoh’s boast of not knowing Yahweh (5:2) is being answered in the most public and painful of ways (cf. 7:17).

8:12–14 Moses and Aaron leave Pharaoh’s presence, and Moses “cried to the Lord,” indicating earnest prayer (8:12; cf. 14:10; 17:4). He does not take the Lord’s help for granted but pleads earnestly for it, asking the Lord to reveal his power and strength by taking away “the frogs, which he had brought upon Pharaoh” (8:12; cf. ESV mg.). The Lord answers, and the frogs die throughout the land (v. 13). The Egyptians gather them into heaps and heaps—the Hebrew repeats the word “heaps” to convey how many frogs there are—and the land soon reeks of death, just as the Nile had because of the dead fish (v. 14; cf. 7:21). The stench is a lingering reminder of Pharaoh’s stubborn rebellion and the ultimate end of those who rebel against the Lord.

8:15 With the frogs gone Pharaoh hardens his heart and refuses to honor his promise. For many, promises made to God in desperation are quickly broken when relief comes. How much more so when the promiser has a proud and stubborn heart: “If favor is shown to the wicked, he does not learn righteousness” (Isa. 26:10).194

8:16–19 In the third strike gnats come on both humans and animals. The initial verses quickly introduce the gnat plague’s coming upon the land (vv. 16–17). For the first time the sorcerer-priests are unable to replicate the sign (v. 18). They also speak for the first time, warning Pharaoh that divine handiwork is involved in this sign! But Pharaoh’s hardened heart will not be moved (v. 19b).

As noted above (cf. Section Overview of 7:8–11:10), the first nine strikes occur in cycles of three, and the third strike in each cycle comes without explicit warning. Perhaps a warning did occur (Pharaoh and his servants know the strike is the Lord’s doing; 8:18–19), but by not mentioning one the narrator makes an important point: if someone resists the Lord, judgment may come unannounced.

Aaron again stretches out the staff of God to bring about a strike (8:16; cf. 7:19; 8:5), in this case literally striking the ground and turning the dust into some form of insect, often translated as “gnats” (though certainty is difficult). The fact that they are on “man and beast” suggests a biting insect, with guesses ranging from lice to mosquitos. Whatever the case, there is no escaping them: “All the dust of the earth became gnats in all the land of Egypt.”

For the first time Pharaoh’s sorcerer-priests fail to imitate the sign (v. 18). They warn Pharaoh, “This is the finger of God” (v. 19), which is to say, “This is divine handiwork” (cf. Ps. 8:3). Moreover, by referring to a single “finger” they acknowledge that the hand’s owner is so powerful that he needs only one finger to accomplish such miracles.

It may be noted that the phrase “finger of God” could be translated “finger of a god.” In other words the sorcerer-priests avoid the question of which god is at work. We are not told why. (Are they worried about angering Pharaoh by naming Moses and Aaron’s God?) Whatever the reason, their words do acknowledge that a divine power is at work, one greater than any power to which they have access, with the context making clear that it is Israel’s God, Yahweh, who is doing these things. Moreover, the sorcerer-priests say this as Egypt’s theological experts (cf. comment on 7:8–13), so Pharaoh now has testimony about Yahweh’s power from his own trusted advisors.

But Pharaoh’s remains hardened. He will not give up his rebellious obstinacy (8:19).

8:20–23 The second cycle of strikes begins (on the cycles cf. Overview at 7:8–11:10). Moses is once more to confront Pharaoh as he goes to the Nile, perhaps to bathe (8:20a; cf. 2:5; 7:15). The warning Moses gives to Pharaoh about not letting the people go could be woodenly rendered, “If you are not sending my people, behold, I am sending swarms of flies” (8:21). In other words, if Pharaoh refuses to send the people out, the Lord will send swarms of flies in! And while the translation “flies” (Hb. ʿarob) is uncertain,195 they will clearly fill the homes of all the Egyptians (vv. 21, 24), causing significant distress and a desperate desire for relief (v. 28).

The land of Goshen, in which the Israelites live, however, will be spared (vv. 21b–22).196 Such a distinction will be mentioned explicitly in four more of the ten strikes (9:4, 6; 9:26; 10:23; 11:7), though it is presumably made in the others as well (cf. note 189 within comment on 8:6). In this instance the Lord states that the distinction is so Pharaoh might “know/acknowledge [cf. comment on 5:1–9] that I am Yahweh in the midst of the earth” (8:22), that is, he is the king dwelling in it and sovereign over all that happens there (cf. 19:5; Deut. 23:14; Ps. 74:12). The Lord then underscores that the distinction will be between “my people,” who will be dwelling in safety and peace, and “your [Pharaoh’s] people,” who will be oppressed and afflicted and not delivered by their king or their gods (Ex. 8:23). The impotence of Pharaoh’s kingship before that of Yahweh will be on public display. Moses is to finish the warning by letting Pharaoh know that the strike will occur by the next day (v. 23). For reasons not explained significant events in Exodus often take place the following day.197 In this case announcing the timing makes clear that the event starts at the Lord’s bidding, and it also gives Pharaoh time to repent.

8:24 Pharaoh apparently refuses to repent, and the sign is fulfilled. The narrator focuses on the widespread nature of the affliction; all the Egyptians are affected.

8:25–27 Pharoah begins with a qualified concession: the Israelites may go and sacrifice to the Lord, but, instead of going a three days’ journey into the wilderness (5:1, 3), they must remain within the land, that is, among the Egyptian population (8:25). Moses repeats the original demand, arguing that, were they to sacrifice in the Egyptian’s presence, they would be stoned since the Egyptians would view their sacrifices as a detestable act (vv. 26–27).198 No reason is given for the Egyptian view (just as it is not explained why Egyptians thought it was detestable to eat with Israelites, Gen. 43:32, or to be a shepherd, Gen. 46:34). Usual guesses are that the Israelites would not sacrifice according to Egyptian religious regulations or would sacrifice animals considered sacred by the Egyptians (or both), though it may also be noted that some cultural views are simply inherited, with new generations simply assuming, “That is just the way it is.” Whatever the reason for the Egyptians’ perspective, Moses’ argument works (cf. note 198).

8:28–29 While Pharaoh agrees to the demand, he warns that the people may not go far. From his perspective, this is to be a temporary situation. He then asks Moses to pray on his behalf, which Moses agrees to do, though not without his own warning: Pharaoh must not break his promise again (cf. v. 15).

8:30–32 As before, the Lord hears Moses’ prayer, and the flies are removed (cf. v. 13). But Pharaoh again hardens his heart, doubling down on his stubborn rebellion and refusing to let the people go (cf. v. 15).

9:1–5 Once more Moses is to demand that Pharaoh release the Israelites so that they may go and worship the Lord (v. 1; cf. note 89 within comment on 3:11–12). If he refuses, a very severe plague will devastate Egyptian livestock, impacting military endeavors (cf. 14:23) and depriving many Egyptians of food and income.199 The plague will occur because “the hand of the Lord will fall” on the livestock (9:3),200 making clear that Israel’s God, the Lord, is sovereign king in the land (cf. 7:4–5). This will be evident not only from the plague’s severity but also from that the fact that it will not affect the Israelites (9:4). As before, Moses is to announce that the strike will happen tomorrow (v. 5; cf. comment on 8:20–23).

9:6–7 The next day the strike occurs, and “all the livestock of the Egyptians died” (v. 6). The word “all” is hyperbolic, since livestock are mentioned just a few verses later (vv. 9, 19; cf. also v. 25 with 10:15), but the point of the hyperbole must not be missed: this blow is widespread and devastating. The Israelites, however, are protected (9:6), which Pharaoh himself confirms (v. 7)!

Sadly, even after confirming the sign himself, his heart doubles down in its stubborn rebellion (v. 7). Hardened hearts do not seek truth, only self-confirmation.

9:8–9 To this point Aaron has been performing the actions leading to judgment. From this point onward Moses will be in the lead role, which suggests that his earlier fears have been addressed (cf. comment on 3:11–12). In this case he and Aaron are to take soot from a furnace, presumably placing it in a container,201 and then Moses is to throw it in the air before Pharaoh (9:8). The soot will become a dust afflicting people and animals with “boils breaking out in sores” (v. 9). While the exact meaning of “sores” is unclear, the term for “boils” clearly refers to a painful skin condition (cf. v. 11; Deut. 28:35; Job 2:7–8) that can be fatal (2 Kings 20:1–7).

9:10–11 Moses and Aaron obey, and the “boils breaking out in sores” afflict people and animals, presumably Egyptians in particular (cf. v. 11b). If the laws of Leviticus 13:18–22 reflect understandings already present among Israelites regarding defilement, the people would have viewed this strike not only as a physical punishment but also as a judgment rendering the Egyptians ritually impure (cf. comment on 8:6). And, while everyone was afflicted, the text highlights the impact on Pharaoh’s magicians. Although they had imitated earlier signs, they are so afflicted by this one they cannot even stand in Moses’ presence—and will not be heard from again. They and the gods they represent have been utterly defeated before Yahweh.

9:12 To this point either Pharaoh has hardened his own heart (8:15, 32) or the text has described his heart as hardened (7:13–14, 22; 8:19; 9:7). But now the Lord brings his judgment to bear by taking this heart hardened in rebellion and making it harder still, “seconding, as it were,” Pharaoh’s own earlier decision to harden it.202 As noted above (cf. comment on 4:21–23), the Lord sometimes judges us by giving us over to our heart’s evil desires. This is a severe warning about the danger of sin, which coats our hearts like quick-drying cement, making repentance increasingly difficult and judgment increasingly certain (cf. comment on 4:21–23 and note 121).

9:13–14 Once more Moses is to meet Pharaoh early in the morning, demand he release the Lord’s people to go and worship him (v. 13; cf. note 89 within comment on 3:11–12), and warn him of disobedience’s consequences (vv. 14–19). The warning is particularly long. When the Lord says, “For this time I will send all my plagues” (v. 14),203 he means either that this strike will involve a combination of judgments (lethal hail, deafening thunder, blinding lightning, torrential rain) or that this time—that is, in this third cycle of strikes and the final strike following it—he will send his remaining judgments on the land.204 Either way, terrifying judgments will occur. Significantly, the Hebrew of verse 14 reads, “I will send all my plagues to your heart,” which refers to Pharaoh himself (cf. ESV mg.) but is more specific, naming the very place causing his rebellion, as though to say, “Your proud heart should be humbled by what you see so that you [singular] finally know/acknowledge”—the word can be translated either way (cf. comment on 5:1–9) —“that there is no god like me in all the earth!”205

9:15–16 To further humble him the Lord states that he could have already wiped Pharaoh and his people from the face of the earth. “Instead,” he says to Pharaoh, “I have established you as king”—Pharaoh’s very throne is dependent on Yahweh!—“so that I could use your reign, with all its stubborn rebellion, as an opportunity to show forth my mighty power, so all nations might hear and know who I am!”206 Even the Lord’s judgment has salvation ultimately in view, and that on a worldwide scale. He is God of all the earth (cf. 9:14; Ps. 24:1) and wants all the earth to know him.

9:17–19 The specific consequence is now named: unprecedented hail that will come the next day (vv. 17–18; for “tomorrow” cf. comment on 8:20–23). The Lord then warns Pharaoh to get all his remaining animals (cf. comment on 9:6–7) and all his people that are out in the fields to shelter lest they die when the hail comes (v. 19). The warning is both a mercy and a test: Will Pharaoh submit his kingship to Yahweh’s by listening?

9:20–21 Pharaoh’s servants also hear the warning and respond in two ways. Some “feared the word of the Lord,” that is, obeyed it reverently (cf. Prov. 13:13). But others did not. The Hebrew of Exodus 9:21 begins, “Whoever did not set his heart to the word of the Lord.” To “set one’s heart” is an idiom that refers to “paying attention” to something or “taking it to heart” (cf. 2 Sam. 13:33; 19:20; Isa. 41:22 [ESV “consider”]). In this context it emphasizes that their problem, like Pharaoh’s, lies in the heart, leading them to leave their servants and livestock fatally exposed.

9:22–25 The Lord now commands Moses to stretch toward the heavens his hand, which is holding the staff of God (v. 22; cf. v. 23). This action will be an enacted prayer (cf. comment on 9:29–30), which the Lord will answer by sending hail on everything exposed in Egypt’s fields: people, animals, and plants. When Moses obeys, the Lord responds and the narrator slows down, taking three verses to describe the storm’s terrifying nature and consequences (vv. 23–25). Relentless hail (the word is mentioned six times) falls, accompanied by constant lightning strikes and explosions of thunder. The results are apocalyptic:207 people and animals are killed, crops wiped out, and trees splintered into bits. This is loss of life and financial disaster rolled into one, since losing one’s servants, livestock, crops, and trees (esp. those bearing fruit; cf. 10:15) would lead to economic ruin. Egypt is utterly devastated.

9:26 Against the backdrop of Egypt’s ruin stands the peaceful tranquility of Goshen, where the Israelites dwells. Once more the Lord sets his people apart, protecting them with his fatherly love and care and making clear that it is their God, Yahweh, who is doing these things (cf. 8:22–23; 9:4, 6; 10:23; 11:7; cf. note 189 within comment on 8:6).

9:27–28 For the first time Pharaoh acknowledges his wrong: “This time I have sinned” (v. 27). Commentators debate whether he means “This time (but not the previous times) I have sinned,” “This time I (acknowledge that I have) sinned,” or “This (one last) time I have sinned (but will not do so again).” In favor of the third understanding is his use of the near identical words in 10:17, where “this one last time” fits the context very well.208 In any case what is clear is that he acknowledges “The Lord is in the right” in demanding his people’s release, “and I and my people are in the wrong” for not doing so.209 He then pleads with Moses to pray for deliverance, and he promises release (9:28).

9:29–30 Moses responds that he will “stretch out [his] hands to the Lord”—an action that often accompanied prayer (1 Kings 8:22; Ps. 143:6; Isa. 1:15)210—and promises that the thunder and hail will cease so that Pharaoh (the “you” is singular) “may know that the earth is the Lord’s” (9:29)—that is, that Yahweh is sovereign king over the world and controls all that occurs within it (cf. Ps. 24:1). He is the Lord; Pharaoh and his gods are not.

Moses then notes that Pharaoh and his servants “do not yet fear the Lord God” (Ex. 9:30). In contrast to some servants who did have an appropriate fear (v. 20) Pharaoh and his remaining servants do not. Often to “fear the Lord” means to show him obedience and love (Deut. 5:29; 6:2; 10:12), the emphasis being more on revering him than on actual terror. But the form of the phrase used here occurs in contexts in which the emphasis appears to be on the emotion of fear itself, perhaps because of the direct presence of the source of that fear (cf. esp. Deut. 2:4; 5:5; 7:18; 20:1; Ps. 3:6). Here the sense would be, “You are not afraid of the Lord’s judgment despite his clear presence in these miracles.” It may also be noted that at first glance this reads as an accusation, a way for Moses to affirm he is not fooled by Pharaoh’s words. Possibly, however, Moses means this more as a challenge, a way to ask, “Do you really mean it?”—just as Joshua challenges the Israelites after their promise of obedience (cf. Josh. 24:14–20). If so, it is to give Pharaoh a chance to reaffirm (“I do really mean it!”), a response that in this case is notably missing (cf. Josh. 24:21). Either way, Pharaoh and his officials are painted negatively. Despite the clear work of God’s hand in their midst, they still have not learned to fear his judgment (cf. Isa. 9:13; Jer. 2:30; Hag. 2:17).

9:31–32 The narrator interrupts the story to explain that this strike takes place while “the barley was in the ear and the flax was in bud” (Ex. 9:31), that is, sometime “in February or early March.”211 This orients the audience to the time of year and informs them of which crops are destroyed. The mention that “the wheat and the emmer were not struck down, for they are late in coming up” (v. 32) underscores the time of year and perhaps also helps the audience figure out which crops are destroyed in the next strike (cf. 10:5, 12, 15).212

9:33–35 As before, Moses prays and the Lord answers, ending the storm (v. 33; cf. 8:12–13, 30–31). And, as before, Pharaoh sins: he hardens his heart (cf. 8:15, 32)—this time joined by his servants—and refuses to let the people go (9:34–35; cf. note 208 within comment on 9:27–28).

10:1–2 In the previous passage Pharaoh and his servants hardened their hearts (9:34–35); in this passage the Lord states he has also done so to their hearts (10:1a). As noted earlier, he sometimes judges people by giving them over to their hearts’ evil desires (cf. comments on 4:21–23 [esp. note 121]; 9:12). That he does so here is meant to encourage Moses: despite Pharaoh’s rebellion the Lord is in full control.

Returning to themes found in 9:14–16, the Lord explains he is using the rebellion of Pharaoh and his servants to accomplish far greater purposes, namely, displaying his miraculous judgment signs in their midst (10:1). The Israelites will then be able to tell future generations how the Lord used these signs in his dealings with the Egyptians (v. 2). Indeed, the term “dealt harshly” can “mean ‘abuse’ or ‘mistreat’ but in the sense of ‘humiliate,’”213 as someone might humiliate an enemy king. As the Egyptians and their king have humiliated the Israelites, now the true King will deliver the Israelites and humiliate their abusers. As a result, future generations (the “you” is plural) will know that Yahweh is the sovereign king (v. 2b). We help our children to know him when we recount to them his work in our own lives.214

10:3–6 Moses and Aaron deliver the Lord’s message to Pharaoh. Their opening question reveals Pharaoh’s central problem: a refusal to humble himself and acknowledge the Lord as sovereign king (v. 3). The command to let the people go and worship the Lord is then repeated (v. 3b; cf. note 89 within comment on 3:11–12), followed by a long warning about disobedience’s consequences (10:4–6; for “tomorrow” cf. comment on 8:20–23). The Lord will bring so many locusts that they will cover the land like a living, swarming blanket, devouring any crops left by the hail (cf. 9:32), destroying any recovering trees, and filling every home with insects.215 This will not be the first locust plague in Egypt’s history, but it will be a thousand times worse than any before it.

Having issued the warning, Moses and Aaron leave (10:6). The next move belongs to Pharaoh.

10:7 Pharaoh’s servants appeal to him. They describe Moses as a “snare,” that is, an instrument that captures something so it can be killed. The only way to escape the snare is to agree to Moses’ request, so they tell Pharaoh, “Let the men go, that they may serve the Lord their God.” Why specify “men” when the Lord had said “people” (cf. v. 3)? Perhaps to ensure the Israelites return, knowing the men will not leave permanently without their families. Whatever the reason, this is half-hearted obedience. Nonetheless, the servants still have the sense to name what Pharaoh is ignoring: the Lord has utterly ruined the land. Something must be done.

10:8–11 Moses and Aaron are brought back, and Pharaoh tells them to go and serve the Lord. This seems promising until Pharaoh asks who is to go (v. 8). “Everyone,” Moses says, including the animals, for the people will hold a “feast” to the Lord (cf. 3:18)—that is, a community festival with sacrifices to the deity being honored (10:9; 32:5–6). Pharaoh is furious, perhaps understanding this to be an understated request for the whole nation to leave permanently (cf. note 131 within comment on 5:1–9). He begins sarcastically, as if to say, “May the Lord be with you if I ever send you off. But that is not going to happen!” (10:10). Little does he know how ironic his sarcasm is, as it will not be long before he does send them off, asking Moses to bless him when he does (12:32)! He then turns to accusation: “You are plotting evil!” before finishing by deceptively mischaracterizing the request: “So take only the men and go, for that is all you really want!” 10:10–11 AT). The king has spoken, and Moses and Aaron are driven out from his presence with their request denied. Pharaoh has made a fatal move.

10:12–15 The Lord commands Moses to lift the staff—the action again serving as an enacted prayer (cf. comment on 9:22–25)—so that locusts might come and devour anything left by the hail (10:12). In response to Moses’ prayer the Lord directs an east wind to bring the locusts by the next morning (v. 13). As with the hail, the locusts come in unprecedented and apocalyptic proportions (vv. 14–15; cf. Rev. 9:1–12; cf. comment 9:22–25, esp. note 207). They so cover the land that it is “darkened.” At the least this language refers to a physical phenomenon, such as thick clouds of locusts’ obscuring the sunlight or spreading like a dark blanket across the earth’s surface, or both. But darkness is also associated regularly with judgment (Isa. 5:30; Ezek. 32:8; Joel 2:10)—as it will be in full force in the next strike (Ex. 10:21–29)—and the Hebrew phrase used in verse 15 suggests an ominous reading here.216 The judgment plays out in utter decimation, the text emphasizing that the locusts eat all the land and tree crops so that not a green thing of tree crops remains.217 The devastation is total.

10:16–17 This time Pharaoh “hastily” summons Moses and Aaron (v. 16). There is no time to lose! For the second time he confesses his wrong, this time acknowledging he has sinned against both the Lord and his representatives (cf. 9:27). He asks to be forgiven “only this once” (10:17), which may mean “this one last time—I will not do it again!”218 He then pleads that the Lord end the strike, calling it “this death” in light of its horrific consequences on the land (v. 17). Though unstated, the implication is that he will let the people go once the strike is ended.

10:18–19 Leaving Pharaoh’s presence, Moses prays and the Lord answers, bringing a very strong western wind to drive the locusts into the Red Sea. The concluding statement—“Not a single locust was left”—seems to anticipate what happens when the Lord drowns Pharaoh’s army in the Red Sea, such that “not one of them was left” (14:28 AT).219

10:20 For the second time we read that the Lord hardens Pharaoh’s heart, that is, takes his already hardened heart and makes it harder still (v. 20; cf. comment on 9:12). Pharaoh then rebelliously refuses to let the Israelites go, setting up himself and his people for even further judgment.

10:21 As is common for the third strike in each series (cf. 8:16; 9:8–9), the judgment is announced immediately: “Stretch out your hand toward heaven, that there may be darkness over the land of Egypt, a darkness to be felt” (10:21).220 As noted above, the Bible often associates darkness with judgment (cf. comment on 10:12–15), a judgment particularly pointed in Egypt’s case since “the sun was worshiped as a manifestation of various deities, such as Atum, Re, Amun, and Amun-Re.”221 In obliterating the sun’s light this judgment obliterates any deities it represents.

10:22–23 The darkness that comes is so thick that the Egyptians “did not see one another.” As we might say, they could not see their hand in front of their face. Many commentators suggest the darkness is due to a type of sandstorm known as the khamsin. This is not impossible (the Lord elsewhere uses natural phenomena in a supernatural way; v. 13; 14:21), but the text does not say, focusing instead on the darkness’s effect. The hardship is physical, making it virtually impossible to move around, but undoubtedly emotionally terrifying as well, as the darkness continues unabated for three days, leaving people unsure whether it is day or night and in little doubt that divine judgment is at work. The Israelites, however, experience none of this. Their God, Yahweh, continues to shine his light on their place of dwelling (10:23).

10:24 Presumably after the darkness has abated, Pharaoh summons Moses. Pharaoh’s obstinacy is underscored when for the third time he puts limits on who can leave Egypt (cf. 8:25–28; 10:8–11). The situation would be comical were it not so tragic. Having been struck by the Lord nine different times, Pharaoh is in no position to haggle, but pride blinds him to his true situation, and he tells Moses that he and the people can go and worship the Lord (cf. note 89 within comment on 3:11–12) but must leave their animals behind. This is a hostage-taking maneuver. Pharaoh knows the people will not ultimately leave without their animals, which are so central to economic well-being.

10:25–29 Moses begins either by stating that Pharaoh himself must provide them with sacrifices (ESV) or by rhetorically asking whether he will do so (NET).222 Either way, he insists that all their animals must go with them so they can make proper sacrifices when they worship the Lord (v. 26). They surely would not be asked to kill every last animal, but it makes good sense to understand that Moses is again following an approach to negotiation in which the full goal is not stated explicitly but implied, namely, the nation and all their belongings are leaving the land for good (cf. note 131 within comment on 5:1–9). In such negotiations it is wise to present an argument with even minimal plausibility if it can communicate the full goal. Pharaoh’s angry response makes clear he gets the message.

While the earlier strikes noted that Pharaoh hardened his heart or that his heart continued in a hardened state, the later strikes have emphasized the Lord’s involvement in hardening Pharaoh’s heart. This functions as a sobering punishment corresponding to the crime: If one harden his heart against the Lord, he may bring his justice to bear by making the heart harder still and then judging the person for his hardness (cf. comments on 4:21–23 [esp. note 121]; 9:12). He does so here for the third time (cf. 9:12; 10:1), and Pharaoh again refuses to let the people go (v. 27). A sense of finality is introduced as Pharaoh warns Moses never to return to see Pharoah’s face, on pain of death (v. 28). Moses responds that Pharaoh will never see his face again (v. 29), leaving the reader to conclude that things are about to come to a head and that Moses will indeed be leading the people out of Egypt, never to see Pharaoh again.223 Pharaoh has become an unwitting prophet of his own defeat.224

11:1–3 As many commentators argue, the narrator provides verses 1–3 as an aside that previews what is to come.226 The effect is to draw in the audience, making it wonder, “How did the story turn out like that?” One might compare how some movies begin with a climactic scene from the story’s end and then go back to the story’s beginning after showing a subtitle that reads “Two days earlier” or something similar. In this case the audience is told clearly that Israel will finally be released—and will go out with extreme favor.

The aside begins with the Lord’s words, which focus on the effects the last strike will have on Pharaoh and Egypt (vv. 1–2).227 The timing of his speaking these words is not stated, but their meaning is clear. He begins with a promise. Because of the last strike, Pharaoh will not simply let the people go but will most certainly drive them out due to the strike’s severity (the Hb. of v. 1 is extremely emphatic).228 The Lord then gives a command. The Israelites must ask their Egyptian neighbors for gold and silver items so that they do not leave empty handed (v. 2; cf. comment on 3:21–22). The narrator tells us the request will be met because the Lord will grant his people favor in the Egyptians’ eyes. We also learn that Moses has similar favor, being considered a great man by Pharaoh’s servants and all the people (11:3). In short Israel will be delivered and experience tremendous favor. So how does this come about?

11:4–8a The narrator now picks up where the story left off in 10:29, and Moses declares to Pharaoh a final announcement of judgment. In the middle of the night the Lord will go out in the midst of Egypt,229 and all the firstborn will die (cf. comment on 4:21–23 for discussion of the death of the firstborn). This will happen at all levels of Egyptian society—from Pharaoh’s firstborn to the slave’s firstborn—and to livestock as well as people (11:5). All Egypt will experience this judgment in one way or another, and a cry of unprecedented suffering will rise throughout the land (v. 6). The word for “cry” is in fact “the very term used to give expression to Israel’s misery under Egyptian enslavement [Ex. 3:7, 9]. The anguished cry of the oppressed yields to the cry of their oppressors and tormentors.”230 The only ones excepted will be the Israelites, who will face no hardship (the apparent meaning of “not a dog shall growl against” them). The result will be that Pharaoh and his servants (the “you” is plural) will know that the Israelites are Yahweh’s people and thus experience his protection and love (11:7). Indeed, Pharaoh’s own servants will come and bow before Moses instead of Pharaoh and plead with him to leave, an act that humbly recognizes that the God whom Moses represents is the true king (v. 8a).

11:8b Moses then goes “out from Pharaoh in hot anger.” No reason is given, but the context suggests it is because of Pharaoh’s stubborn and rebellious refusal to let the people go (v. 8a). As elsewhere, rebellion against the Lord angers Moses (cf. 32:19).

11:9–10 The last two verses summarize Pharaoh’s disobedience and the Lord’s sovereignty over it. In verse 9 the Lord again alerts Moses that Pharaoh will continue to refuse to listen and then explains how he will use Pharaoh’s disobedience as an opportunity to display his miraculous signs of power.231 In verse 10 the narrator notes that Moses and Aaron have performed these signs before Pharaoh but that Pharaoh has not obeyed because the Lord further hardens his already hardened heart. In short the Lord is sovereign over Pharaoh’s disobedience and uses it to make his power and glory known in the earth. Israel need not fear Pharaoh but has every reason instead to worship the Lord.