Judges
Overview
The book of Judges is the second book in a collection of books known as the Former Prophets, which comprise Joshua, Judges, 1–2 Samuel, and 1–2 Kings. Together these books document the period of Israel’s occupation of the land of Canaan from their crossing of the Jordan River in Joshua 1–4 to their exile from the land in 2 Kings 17; 25. These books recount the faithfulness of the Lord to fulfill all of his covenant promises made to Israel through Moses. The explicit statement of this purpose appears in strategic locations, first in Joshua and then in 2 Kings. After Joshua has completed the allocation of Israel’s inheritance to each of her tribes, it is recorded that “Not one word of all the good promises that the Lord had made to the house of Israel had failed; all came to pass” (Josh. 21:45). Then, at the dedication of the temple Solomon declares, “Blessed be the Lord who has given rest to his people Israel, according to all that he promised. Not one word has failed of all his good promise, which he spoke by Moses his servant” (1 Kings 8:56). In the book of Judges the theme of the Lord’s faithfulness comes to expression in his raising up of judges to deliver Israel from the subjugation and oppression of enemies brought about by her repeated lapses into idolatry.
The foil to the theme of the Lord’s faithfulness in the Former Prophets is the ongoing and ever-increasing unfaithfulness of Israel to the Lord. This is a major theme in the book of Judges, aptly expressed by the formulaic statement that brackets the conclusion to the book: “In those days there was no king in Israel. Everyone did what was right in his own eyes” (Judg. 17:6; 21:25). The statement that there was no king reflects Israel’s rejection of the Lord as her King during this time (cf. 1 Sam. 8:7). This rejection of the Lord as King led to everyone’s doing what was right in his own eyes, usually expressed in Judges in terms of idolatry. In fact, each of the six major judge episodes in Judges begins with a variation of the statement “And the people of Israel did what was evil in the sight of the Lord. They forgot the Lord their God and served the Baals and the Asheroth” (Judg. 3:7; cf. 3:12; 4:1; 6:1; 10:6; 13:1). There is a clear relationship between the two statements: the idolatry of Israel was that which was evil in the eyes of the Lord.
The book of Judges records a period in the life of the nation of Israel between the prophetic leadership of Moses and Joshua and the establishment of the monarchy in Israel. The wilderness generation of Moses in Exodus through Deuteronomy and the generation of conquest under Joshua had been eyewitnesses of God’s great signs and wonders to save and deliver. But then “there arose another generation after them who did not know the Lord or the work that he had done for Israel” (Judg. 2:10). In the generations between Joshua and the kings, Israel did “what was evil in the sight of the Lord” (2:11). The evil described in Judges is portrayed as Israel’s progressive decline into idolatry and subsequent moral corruption. The nation of Israel was originally designated by God as a “kingdom of priests and a holy nation” (Ex. 19:6), but by the end of the book of Judges Israel had become like all of the other nations around her.
Title
The name of the book is derived from the office of the leaders presented in the book, the so-called judges. These individuals were raised up by God to deliver his people from foreign oppression, secure rest for the land, and promote faithfulness to God through the keeping of the covenant (Judg. 2:16–19; 1 Sam. 12:19–25). The office of the judge ceased after Samuel with the emergence of the monarchy in Israel.
Author
The human author of the book of Judges is unknown. Some traditions suggest that Samuel was its author (Babylonian Talmud, Baba Bathra 14b–15a), but this is impossible to verify. However, since the book of Judges is the Word of God and an undisputed part of the canon of Scripture, it is helpful to remember that the “Spirit of Christ” was at work in the human author who produced this book in its final, canonical form (1 Pet. 1:11). The book of Judges itself provides a fitting analogy to the nature of the authorship of the book. Upon judges such as Gideon, Jephthah, and Samson the Spirit of the Lord rushed, enabling them to deliver Israel. As such, the Lord is to be identified as the agent of deliverance, while the judges serve as the human instrument. In the same way, the Lord is the primary agent behind biblical revelation while the human authors serve as the Spirit-enabled instruments.
Date and Occasion
As with the author, the date and occasion for the composition of the book is unknown. Following the death of Joshua (Judg. 1:1; 2:8), Judges documents a period of time after the generation of Joshua until Samuel’s ministry and the establishment of the monarchy recorded in 1–2 Samuel (c. 1360–1084 BC). In Jephthah’s negotiations with the Ammonites he notes that Israel has already occupied the territory under dispute for some three hundred years (Judg. 11:26).
The author’s reference to the “captivity of the land” in 18:30 may suggest an exilic or postexilic date of composition. It is also possible, however, that the book came together in stages or that an editor included minor updates, such as time markers, in the final form of the book. Perhaps the accounts of the judges in the central part of the book (3:7–16:31) are earlier, preexilic compositions and the introductions (1:1–3:6) and conclusions (17:1–21:25) are later, exilic or postexilic compositions. The four references to kingship (17:6; 18:1; 19:1; 21:25) and the strong pro-Judah/anti-Benjamin polemic in the introductions and conclusions suggest a period of composition after the establishment of the Davidic monarchy. For these reasons, someone like Samuel would be the earliest possible author of the book. As the final judge, Samuel would have known about the other judges and the period of time in which they lived (1 Sam. 12:9–11). We also know that Samuel kept records of the affairs of the kingdom (1 Chron. 29:29). Additionally, he was involved in the establishment of the monarchy in Israel and personally experienced the contrast in kingship presented by Saul from Benjamin and David from Judah.
We may not know everything we would like to know about the authorship or date of composition of Judges. We do know, however, that “whatever was written in former days was written for our instruction, that through endurance and through the encouragement of the Scriptures we might have hope” (Rom. 15:4). In this regard, the book of Judges does not disappoint.
Genre and Literary Features
Judges consists primarily of classical Hebrew narrative that includes both narration and discourse (speech). In addition to narrative, we also find the poetic victory song of Deborah (5:2–31), the fable of Jotham (9:8–15), and the riddles and poems of Samson (14:14, 18; 15:16). Instances of repetition, inclusio, wordplay, and curious figures of speech are noted throughout the commentary.
The most striking literary feature of Judges is the structure of the book as a whole. The macrostructure of the book of Judges comprises two introductions, two conclusions, and twelve judges: six major judges and six minor judges (and one anti-judge, Abimelech).1 In general, the accounts of the major judges become progressively longer as the sin of Israel becomes progressively worse. We also observe that the cost of deliverance for the judge increases as Israel’s corruption intensifies.
The two introductions and the two conclusions mirror each other in an A-B-B'-A' pattern (chiasm) as presented below:
(A) The Crisis of Israel’s Inheritance: Land (1:1–2:5)
(B) The Crisis of Israel’s Faith: Idolatry (2:6–3:6)
(B') The Crisis of Israel’s Faith: Idolatry (17:1–18:31)
(A') The Crisis of Israel’s Inheritance: Tribe (19:1–21:25)
The formulaic beginning of each major judge narrative groups the major judges into two sets of three. Othniel, Ehud, and Deborah/Barak constitute the first group of three, while Gideon, Jephthah, and Samson constitute the second. The author achieves these groupings by slightly altering the opening formula for each of the six major judge accounts.2
(1) Othniel: And the people of Israel did what was evil in the sight of the Lord (3:7).
(2) Ehud: And the people of Israel again did what was evil in the sight of the Lord (3:12).
(3) Deborah/Barak: And the people of Israel again did what was evil in the sight of the Lord (4:1).
(4) Gideon: And the people of Israel did what was evil in the sight of the Lord (6:1).
(5) Jephthah: And the people of Israel again did what was evil in the sight of the Lord (10:6).
(6) Samson: And the people of Israel again did what was evil in the sight of the Lord (13:1).
The English translations of the second, third, fifth, and sixth opening sentences contain the expression “again did,” which links them to the first and fourth opening lines, respectively. In Hebrew the difference is much more noticeable, as the opening sentences begin with a different verb altogether.
The minor judges fit within the structure of the major judges. They precede and mark climactic major judge narratives with increasing levels of intensity. For example, one minor judge, Shamgar (3:31), precedes the Deborah and Barak account, the climactic judge narrative in the first set of three major judges. Then two minor judges, Tola and Jair (10:1–5), precede the Jephthah account and so mark it as a climactic penultimate judge narrative. Finally, three minor judges, Ibzan, Elon, and Abdon (12:8–15), precede the Samson narrative and mark it as the final, climactic judge narrative in the book.
The arrangement of the book is not chronological but rather theological. The two introductions and two conclusions flank and inform the accounts of the judges, with two sets of three major judges in each group. This structure is represented graphically (cf. figure 3.1).
The macrostructure of the book appears to be modeled after the days of creation in Genesis 1:1–2:3. In Genesis the opening verses (1:1–2) provide the introduction, followed by six days in two sets of three (1:3–31). These days are then followed by the concluding seventh day (2:1–3). In the Genesis account the narrative moves from chaos in the introduction to the Lord’s being enthroned as Sabbath King over the cosmos in the conclusion. In Judges, however, the opposite is true. In the beginning the nation of Israel is relatively faithful under the leadership of Joshua. However, by the time we arrive at the end of the book, we have returned to chaos, with one tribe unable to possess its inheritance and another tribe having become fully Canaanite. Additionally, in the Genesis account the climax of creation is the Lord’s enthronement as Sabbath King over his creation. In Judges, however, the conclusion describes a time without a king in Israel, a tacit statement regarding Israel’s rejection of the Lord as King during this time.3 In this way the macrostructure of the book of Judges presents the un-creation of Israel as the people of God.
In addition to the elegant design of the book’s macrostructure, each of the six major judge episodes exhibits a basic structure with common narrative elements. All of these design features appear in the first major judge narrative, that of Othniel, which becomes the standard or paradigm for the following judge narratives. These seven features are identified and discussed in the Section Overview of Judges 3:7–11. Not all of the elements appear in each major judge narrative, since variation and adaptation are vital components of literary art.
Theology of Judges
Kingship (Benjamin and Judah)
An important theme in Judges is that of kingship and, more generally, leadership. Under Joshua’s leadership Israel prospered and the land had rest. However, when Joshua died the subsequent generations fell into idolatry and corruption, resulting in their subjugation by the nations around them. When the Lord would raise up a judge, that judge would deliver God’s people, secure rest for the land, and promote faithfulness to the Lord. However, “whenever the judge died, they turned back and were more corrupt than their fathers, going after other gods, serving them and bowing down to them” (Judg. 2:19). The office of judge was not dynastic, so when a judge died the people had to wait for the Lord to raise up another person to serve as judge. This reality made the office of kingship seem desirable because it could provide an uninterrupted succession of faithful leaders who would lead the nation in faithfulness to the Lord.
This is one reason for the fourfold refrain that appears in the conclusions to the book: “In those days there was no king in Israel” (17:6; 18:1; 19:1; 21:25). These statements begin to prepare us for the advent of the monarchy in Israel as recorded in 1–2 Samuel. Judges also anticipates Israel’s monarchy with its pro-Judah (David)/anti-Benjamin (Saul) polemic that is especially concentrated in the introductions and conclusions to the book. For example, in the first introduction Judah is chosen to lead in battle, Judah possesses its territory, and the Lord is with Judah (Judg. 1:1–20). After some twenty verses recounting Judah’s favor, the very next verse (v. 21) records Benjamin’s failure to dislodge the Jebusites, in contravention to the laws of occupation. Benjamin’s cohabitation with the Jebusites anticipates its eventual corruption recorded in the second conclusion, when the Benjaminites have become Canaanite, even Sodomite, in their moral corruption. Because of this the tribe is put to the ban and, once again, Judah is selected to lead in battle. In the books of 1–2 Samuel the theme of kingship intensifies and the conflict and contrast between Benjamin and Judah continue.
Covenant and Redemptive History
The Mosaic covenant was an administration of the covenant of grace that governed the life of Israel, granting her the gift of the land of Canaan as an inheritance from the Lord. Israel’s tenure in the land depended upon its obedience to this covenant; in the case of disobedience they would be exiled from that land. Since we know the end of story, we know that Israel was not able to maintain obedience to the covenant but was eventually exiled from the land (2 Kings 17; 25). It is important to understand, however, that both the land and the nation of Israel pointed beyond themselves to a better inheritance and a different kind of people. The land of Canaan, like the garden of Eden before it, serves as a shadow, image, or type of the new heavens and the new earth. This is an inheritance that cannot be lost, because the problem of sin and disobedience has been solved with a new kind of people, now including both Jew and Gentile. The people of God are those who have put their faith in the true King anticipated by the book of Judges, King Jesus. He is the one who has defeated the ultimate Enemy, has provided ultimate rest, and has procured an everlasting inheritance.
Even Abraham understood this when he first stepped foot in the land, for “by faith he went to live in the Land of Promise, as in a foreign land, living in tents with Isaac and Jacob, heirs with him of the same promise. For he was looking forward to the city that has foundations, whose designer and builder is God” (Heb. 11:9–10). It is helpful to think of the covenant God made with Abraham as finding fulfillment in two stages. The first stage was the temporary, typological administration of the Mosaic covenant. The second stage is the permanent, substantive administration of the new covenant (Col. 2:17; Heb. 8:5; 10:1). In this way we are able to distinguish important continuities and discontinuities between these two administrations of the covenant of grace, as the former points to and prepares for the latter. The ability to distinguish continuity and discontinuity when studying Judges is a key to interpretation and application in the context of the church and the world in which we live.
Relationship to the Rest of the Bible and to Christ
As stated in the Overview, Judges is the second book in a group of books known in the Hebrew Bible as the Former Prophets. Together these books testify to the faithfulness of the Lord, who kept all of the covenantal promises he had made to his people through Moses (Josh. 21:45; 1 Kings 8:56). These promises included both blessings for obedience to the terms of the covenant and curses for disobedience to those same terms. The life of the nation of Israel was governed by and measured by the terms of the Mosaic covenant, a temporary and typological administration of the covenant of grace. The Latter Prophets (Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and the twelve minor prophets) used the Former Prophets as evidence in their prosecution of the Lord’s lawsuit against his people for breaking the covenant. In other words, the accounts in the Former Prophets provide the justification and the explanation for the exile.
Samuel rehearses the period of the Judges when he enters into judgment with Israel for desiring a human king to replace the Lord as their King (1 Sam. 12:6–12). In this context, Samuel explains that the Lord’s raising up of judges to deliver his people from the hand of the enemy is just one more example of “all the righteous deeds of the Lord that he performed for you and for your fathers” (1 Sam. 12:7).
In Psalm 105 the psalmist explains that the Lord “gave them the lands of the nations, and they took possession of the fruit of the peoples’ toil, that they might keep his statutes and observe his laws” (Ps. 105:44–45). Judges demonstrates that the Lord’s gift of the “lands of the nations” was not met with the intended response of the people: obedience to the covenant. The period of the Judges is extensively rehearsed in Psalm 106:34–44, in which Israel’s disobedience, idolatry, and corruption are contrasted with the Lord’s faithfulness to his covenant. When the Lord remembered his covenant, he “relented according to the abundance of his steadfast love” (Ps. 106:45) and “caused [Israel] to be pitied by all those who held them captive” (Ps. 106:46). The way in which the Lord saved his people during the period of the judges became the basis for hope that the Lord could and would continue to deliver his people both in the present and in the future. The pattern of the Lord’s faithfulness during the time of the judges provides assurance and serves as the ground for praise and worship (Ps. 106:47–48).
In the book of Hebrews the judges (specifically Gideon, Barak, Samson, and Jephthah) are presented as men of faith who served with distinction in the administration of the kingdom of God (Heb. 11:32–40). These judges were “commended through their faith” (Heb. 11:39) and are now part of that “great . . . cloud of witnesses” who together call us to “look to Jesus, the founder and perfecter of our faith” (Heb. 12:1–2). These judges were raised up by the Lord and empowered by the Spirit to deliver his people from the enemy, secure Israel’s inheritance, and promote faithfulness to the covenant. In this way the judges serve as types of Christ. Although the judges themselves are sinful and in need of gospel grace and saving faith, their ministry ultimately points forward to the life and ministry of Christ, the ultimate Judge.
Preaching from Judges
The most important thing to remember when preaching, teaching, or studying the book of Judges is the fact that the judges serve as types of Christ. In John 5:39 we are taught that Jesus is the filter through which we must read Judges when he states, “You search the Scriptures because you think that in them you have eternal life; and it is they that bear witness about me.” The narratives contained in Judges were written to “bear witness,” or to “testify,” to the person and work of Jesus and the great salvation he has achieved for his people.4
The judges were raised up out of Israel to rescue and deliver the people of God. This does not mean that the judges were perfect or that they never committed sin. They most certainly did, but the book of Judges focuses on how God delivered his people from both their sin (idolatry) and the corruption of that sin (subjugation and oppression by the surrounding nations). The judges served as the weak instruments through which the Lord achieved his great victories. In this way we are reminded that “God chose what is foolish in the world to shame the wise; God chose what is weak in the world to shame the strong” (1 Cor. 1:27).
When preaching from the book of Judges, it is also important to remember the overarching testimony of the Former Prophets as a whole. This would include an emphasis on the faithfulness of the Lord to fulfill all of his promises (Josh. 21:45; 1 Kings 8:56), which serves as another point of reference to the person and work of Christ—“For all the promises of God find their Yes in him” (2 Cor. 1:20). This would also include an emphasis on the ability of the Lord to rescue and deliver his people from corruption and oppression, with a corresponding emphasis on our needing to be rescued from our own sin and corruption.
We are instructed by the apostle Paul that Judges was written for our instruction and encouragement, in order to promote endurance and hope in the life of the believer: “Whatever was written in former days was written for our instruction, that through endurance and through the encouragement of the Scriptures we might have hope” (Rom. 15:4). The narratives of the judges remind us that God never gives up on his people but is always in pursuit of us because of his grace, mercy, and steadfast love. Even when he sold or gave his people over to the hand of the enemy in Judges because of their idolatry, he did so to provoke repentance, so that he might turn and deliver yet again.
Paul also teaches that narratives like those in Judges serve as a point of warning for God’s people. Although the historical references in 1 Corinthians 10 focus of the wilderness generation under Moses, they also apply to the events recorded in the book of Judges and instruct us in how to appropriate this material in our preaching and teaching. Paul’s writes,
These things took place as examples for us, that we might not desire evil as they did. Do not be idolaters as some of them were; as it is written, “The people sat down to eat and drink and rose up to play.” We must not indulge in sexual immorality as some of them did, and twenty-three thousand fell in a single day. We must not put Christ to the test, as some of them did and were destroyed by serpents, nor grumble, as some of them did and were destroyed by the Destroyer. Now these things happened to them as an example, but they were written down for our instruction, on whom the end of the ages has come. Therefore let anyone who thinks that he stands take heed lest he fall. No temptation has overtaken you that is not common to man. God is faithful, and he will not let you be tempted beyond your ability, but with the temptation he will also provide the way of escape, that you may be able to endure it. (1 Cor. 10:6–13)
Judges warns us so “that we might not desire evil as they did” and so that we may know in the midst of our temptations in life that the Lord “will also provide the way of escape, that you may be able to endure it.” Judges is, indeed, Christian Scripture. It points us to Christ, warns us against giving in to temptation, and provides us with encouragement, hope, and endurance. Because books such as Judges are often neglected in the church, preaching from it in the ways suggested above should provide new, and perhaps unexpected, moments of encouragement for the church.
Interpretative Challenges
Violence and Holy War
The narratives in Judges contain much violence, including executions, torture, and warfare. If some of these narratives were adapted for the modern screen, they would definitely require parental warnings. One of the more difficult aspects of this violence is the Lord’s command for the Israelites to destroy the Canaanites completely from the land they were to possess. This is sometimes called “holy war,” or putting people “under the ban.” When a people or nation was put under the ban, it was to be completely destroyed, including all men, women, children, and possessions.
There are two main reasons for this command in the context of the Mosaic covenant. First, the Lord commanded the destruction of the Canaanites in order to protect Israel from adopting their forms of worship and corrupt practices. The legislation for this practice is found in Deuteronomy 7:1–11. It includes the rationale that the Canaanites would “turn away your sons from following me, to serve other gods” (Deut.7:4). The nature of this conquest is described also in Exodus 23:23–33, which concludes, “They shall not dwell in your land, lest they make you sin against me; for if you serve their gods, it will surely be a snare to you” (Ex. 23:33).
Second, the command of complete destruction foreshadows the eschatological judgment that will come against all sin and those who do not repent from it by placing faith in Christ alone. As do the flood in Genesis 6–9 and the destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah in Genesis 19, the extermination of the Canaanites serves as a terrible and sobering reminder of the certain wrath of God’s final judgment against sin and idolatry.5 In Judges it is not only the Canaanites who come under this terrible judgment. By the end of the book the tribe of Benjamin will be put under the ban because of their Canaanite-like corruption.
Modern Interpretation
Modern approaches to the book of Judges tend to portray the judges in a fairly negative manner, with a focus on character flaws and questionable moral behavior. In this commentary, however, the actions of the judges are neither rigorously impugned nor assiduously defended. As stated above, every judge was a sinner in need of gospel grace and saving faith. In the book of Hebrews, the judges are identified as people of such faith. They were those “who through faith conquered kingdoms, enforced justice, obtained promises, stopped the mouths of lions, quenched the power of fire, escaped the edge of the sword, were made strong out of weakness, became mighty in war, put foreign armies to flight” (Heb. 11:33–34). These judges were those “of whom the world was not worthy” and so also “commended through their faith” (Heb. 11:38–39). In the tradition of God’s working his strength through human weakness, the judges serve in the economy of the covenant of grace under the administration of the Mosaic covenant to deliver Israel from the oppression caused by their idolatry. Consider a reference to the judges in Sirach 46:11–12, a work produced after the completion of the OT but before the time of Christ. The author, Ben Sira, wrote,
The judges also, with their respective names,
those whose hearts did not fall into idolatry
and who did not turn away from the Lord—
may their memory be blessed!
May their bones revive from where they lie,
and may the name of those who have been honored
live again in their sons!
This is perhaps an overstatement by Ben Sira, but the point is well taken. The judges point God’s people to their true Savior and King and so are commended for their faith and faithfulness. If we will let them, they can continue to serve the church in the same way today.6
The Office of the Judge in Israel
The title of “judge” can be rather confusing in many modern contexts. We normally think of a distinguished lawyer who wears a robe, sits behind a large desk, and renders legal decisions. Of all the judges in the book, only Deborah approximates that role. It is important not to equate the role of Israel’s ancient judges with judges in our own modern contexts. Israel’s judges were raised up by the Lord and empowered by the Spirit of the Lord in order to achieve victory in battle, deliver God’s people, and secure rest for the land. It is better to think of the judges as God’s instruments of judgment on the nations who oppressed and afflicted Israel. In this way, the judicial nature of their office finds expression in the economy of the kingdom of God.
Outline
I. Introduction to the Judges (1:1–3:6)
A. The Crisis of Israel’s Inheritance: Land (1:1–2:5)
B. The Crisis of Israel’s Faith: Idolatry (2:6–3:6)
II. The Judges (3:7–16:31)
A. The First Three Major Judges (3:7–5:31)
1. Othniel (3:7–11; major)
2. Ehud (3:12–30; major)
3. Shamgar (3:31; minor)
4. Deborah/Barak (4:1–5:31; major)
B. The Second Three Major Judges (6:1–16:31)
1. Gideon (6:1–8:35; major)
2. Abimelech (9:1–57; anti-judge)
3. Tola (10:1–2; minor)
4. Jair (10:3–5; minor)
5. Jephthah (10:6–12:7; major)
6. Ibzan (12:8–10; minor)
7. Elon (12:11–12; minor)
8. Abdon (12:13–15; minor)
9. Samson (13:1–16:31; major)
III. Conclusion to the Judges (17:1–21:25)
A. The Crisis of Israel’s Faith: Idolatry (17:1–18:31)
B. The Crisis of Israel’s Inheritance: Tribe (19:1–21:25)