The Hebrew title of the book of Psalms is Tehillim, literally “praises.” However, the English title Psalms is adopted from the Septuagint (LXX) Greek Bible in the intertestamental period, which titled the book Psalmoi, meaning “songs to the accompaniment of a stringed instrument,” or simply “songs of praise.” The LXX Greek word translates the Hebrew word mizmor (“song”) that occurs in the titles of 57 of the psalms as the title. The English translators transliterated the Greek Psalmoi, resulting in the title “Psalms” in English Bibles.
Author. There is a distinction between God as the author and originator of the ideas and intentions of the text (2Tm 3:16-17), and the individual human psalmists as the writers (2Pt 1:21). This is illustrated in the NT with respect to Psalms in Ac 1:16, where Peter cited Pss 69:25 and 109:8 as “Scripture … which the Holy Spirit foretold by the mouth of David” (see also Ac 4:24-25, cf. Pss 1–2; Heb 4:7, cf. Ps 95:8).
Certain psalms begin with a superscription/heading, which is part of the text indicating the author. King David is explicitly named in the headings of 73 psalms, as well as having his authorship identified in the NT for three other psalms (Pss 1–2 in Ac 4:25; Ps 95 in Heb 4:7). Asaph is the author of 12 psalms, predominantly with postexilic content (50, 73–83). He was one of three heads of the three families of Levitical singers in the time of David (see 1Ch 25) and was also a seer/prophet (2Ch 29:30).
The sons of Korah, a branch of the Levitical singers who led temple worship (2Ch 20:19), are identified in Pss 42, 44–49, 84–85, and 87–88. King Solomon wrote two psalms (72, 127). Ethan, a wise man, Levitical singer, and probably the same as Jeduthun (1Kg 4:31; 1Ch 2:6; 15:19; 2Ch 25:1) wrote one psalm (89). Heman who has co-attribution to the sons of Korah in one psalm (88), was a singer and wise man in Solomon’s court (1Kg 4:31; 1Ch 15:19). Moses wrote one psalm (90).
Of the 46 remaining psalms for which no headings are supplied perhaps three more (Pss 96, 105, and 106) were written by David on the testimony of 1Ch 16:7-36, which ascribes to David (“David first assigned”) a psalm of thanksgiving selectively derived from those three (i.e., Pss 96; 105:1-15; and 106:1, 47-48). The remaining 43 psalms are anonymous, without headings, although tradition has attributed several of them to David.
Date. Historically the individual psalms were written over a period of about 1,000 years, from the time of Moses (c. 1400 BC) to the Israelites’ return from exile (c. 450 BC).
There is no definitive indication of the person or persons responsible for compiling and ordering the psalms in the form of the book, though it seems likely that the bulk of this work was undertaken by an editor after the return from Babylon.
The central implication of this distinction is that Psalms, particularly the royal psalms, must be read from this postexilic perspective when there was no Davidic king on the throne. As a result, the psalms are to be read not looking back at past kings of Israel but forward to the coming of the anticipated son of David, the messianic King.
Structure. In the Hebrew manuscripts, and as reflected in most translations, Psalms is subdivided into five distinct “books.” Though the individual psalms were written by different people at different times (see “Date” above), they were, through divine guidance, eventually compiled and organized around this five-book framework in the postexilic period. Each of the books ends with a doxology (cf. Book One, 41:13; Book Two, 72:18-19; Book Three, 89:52; Book Four, 106:48; and Book Five, Ps 150, which is a doxology to the whole Psalter).
The most likely structure is an intentional paralleling of the five-book subdivision of the Torah. This is affirmed not only by early Jewish tradition but also by the thematic parallels in the content of the corresponding books of the Torah and Psalms, as illustrated in the chart below.
In addition to each of the five books of Psalms being explicitly indicated in the Hebrew text by the headings “Book One,” “Book Two,” etc., the ending of each book is indicated by a clear doxology, the first four of which are variations of the formula “Blessed be … the LORD/His name … forever/to everlasting” (Pss 41:13; 72:18-19; 89:52; 106:48). The last of these is appropriately expressed by a grand doxology, the all-encompassing exhortation, “Let everything that has breath praise the LORD” (Ps 150:6). The individual unity of each of the five books is also underscored (often in quite subtle and sophisticated ways) by the use of similar literary forms and language.
A further structural parallel between Psalms and the Torah is evident in the way both compilations begin and end. Just as the first two chapters of Genesis focus on God’s intended ideal for man, both individually and collectively (i.e., “to worship and to obey”; see the commentary on Gn 2:15), so too do the first two chapters of Psalms focus on God’s intended ideal for man, both individually and collectively; i.e., to cultivate “delight … in the law” (Ps 1:2) suggests obedience, and to worship (“do homage,” Ps 2:12). Also just as the last two chapters of Deuteronomy express praise for God’s overall concern for Israel (Dt 33:3: “Indeed, he loves the people”), His judgment of her enemies (Dt 33:29: the Lord is “the sword of your majesty! So your enemies shall cringe before you”), and His anticipated future, messianic redemption (Dt 34:10: “Since that time no prophet has risen in Israel like Moses”), so too do the last two psalms express praise for God’s overall concern for Israel (Ps 149:4: “For the LORD takes pleasure in His people”), His judgment of her enemies (149:6: “Let the high praises of God be … a two-edged sword in their hand, to execute vengeance on the nations”), and His anticipated future—and final—redemption (149:4: “He will beautify the afflicted ones with salvation”).
Place in the Canon. In modern Christian Bibles, Psalms is the second book in the books of Poetry section (following Job). This organization of Law (Genesis–Deuteronomy); History (Joshua–Esther); Poetry (Job–Song of Songs); and Prophets (Isaiah–Malachi) is derived from the tradition of categorizing the biblical books adopted by Hellenistic Jewry and reflected (with some differences) in the Septuagint (the earliest Greek translation of the OT).
In manuscripts of the Hebrew Bible, Psalms is located in the section known as the Writings (or Hagiographa), the third and last division of the Hebrew Bible. The Hebrew Scriptures are divided into three sections: Torah (Genesis–Deuteronomy), the Prophets (Isaiah–Malachi) and Writings (Psalms, Proverbs, Job, Song of Songs, Ruth, Lamentations, Ecclesiastes, Esther, Daniel, Ezra–Nehemiah, Chronicles). Though the traditional place of Psalms in this third division varies between first (the modern Jewish consensus) and second (after Ruth or Chronicles), it is universally treated (as also in Christian tradition) as a distinct subgroup together with the two successive books of Proverbs and Job.
The prominent place of Psalms in the organization of the Hebrew canon is also evident in Luke 24:44, where, most likely because of its size, “the Psalms” is probably intended as a reference to the entire third division of the Writings (a figure of speech known as synecdoche, substituting a part for the whole). A similar reference—which is also highly significant as a testimony to the early canonization of the OT (earlier, at least, than many modern scholars have been prone to believe)—is also now known from a period more than 100 years before the previously cited reference by Luke, in one of the Dead Sea Scrolls, where the Scriptures are referred to as “the book of Moses and the books of the Prophets and (the Psalms of) David” (4QMMT, C 10).
Purpose and Themes. Almost every biblical theme and theologically significant idea is to be found in Psalms. However, the overarching purpose of the book is indicated by Pss 1 and 2, which were intended to be read together as an introduction to the entire book of Psalms. These two psalms are joined by the literary device in the Hebrew Bible known as an inclusio (or “book ending”), whereby the identical term or expression is intended to highlight the main theme of the “framed” unit—in this case, “blessed” (lit., “O, the blessedness of”), denoting primarily a state of spiritual—and only secondarily material—well-being (not necessarily emotional happiness), equivalent to the blessedness indicated by Jesus in the Beatitudes (Mt 5:3-11).
As an introduction to the book, Ps 1 focuses on worship at the individual level and is grounded in God’s Word, whereas Ps 2 focuses on worship expressed at the corporate level and is grounded in submission to God’s Son, the Messiah King.
As a general introduction, therefore, these two psalms note that the book’s overarching purpose is to instruct believers in the ways of expressing both personal as well as collective worship, grounded in the study of God’s Word and directed toward the Anointed One, the Messiah. It is the Messiah who is the central theme of the book of Psalms, as the last words of David indicate (2Sm 23:1). The future Messiah was “the Delightful One of the songs of Israel,” or David’s favorite subject in the psalms (cf. comments on 2Sm 23:1).
Genre. The book of Psalms is Hebrew poetry. However, Hebrew poetry is not recognized by rhyming patterns as in English language poetry. Instead, several other characteristics typify this poetry:
1. Poetic language. The beauty and power of the psalms are evident in their rich concise word choice, poetic language, and powerful word pictures—as seen in these examples: “the wicked are … like chaff” (1:4); “you have shattered the teeth of the wicked” (3:7); “the LORD is my shepherd” (23:1); “as the deer pants for the water brooks, so my soul pants for You, O God” (42:1); “as the mountains surround Jerusalem, so the LORD surrounds His people” (125:2); and “He gives snow like wool; He scatters the frost like ashes” (147:16).
2. Inclusio. This literary device serves as “book ending” or “bracketing” of ideas with identical or parallel phrases to create a poetic unit of thought. For example, “how blessed is the man …” (Ps 1:1) / “how blessed are all …” (Ps 2:12) and “hope in God, for I shall again praise Him for the help of His presence” / “Hope in God, for I shall yet praise Him, the help of my countenance and my God” (42:5, 11).
3. Parallelism. Another important feature of Psalms (and of all biblical Hebrew poetry) is parallelism, one idea presented in relation to another through parallel thoughts. Generally, parallelism is of three types:
(a) synonymous parallelism, in which consecutive lines (each of which is usually a half-verse) present the same or similar idea in different words—
He raises the poor from the dust,
And he lifts the needy from the ash heap. (Ps 113:7)
(b) antithetical parallelism, in which consecutive lines present contrasting or opposite ideas, usually revolving around a shared point of contact—
The LORD keeps all who love Him,
But all the wicked He will destroy. (Ps 145:20)
(c) synthetic parallelism, in which consecutive lines present different, yet complementary ideas, which together provide a fuller and more specific idea than either line alone—
He trains my hands for battle,
So that my arms can bend a bow of bronze. (Ps 18:34)
4. Acrostic Structure. In an acrostic, each verse in the psalm begins with a consecutive letter of the Hebrew alphabet (e.g., Pss 9–10 together are an acrostic poem; so are Pss 25; 34; 37; 111–112; and 145). Psalm 119, the longest psalm, is an acrostic praise to the Lord and His Word. It has 22 stanzas of eight verses; each stanza begins with the same letter. Acrostic structure is a helpful memory device, and reflects God’s truth from A to Z.
5. Musical Instruction. The psalms were written to be sung, and 30 psalms are identified as “songs” (e.g., Pss 45, 48, 92). The musical connotation mizmor, often translated “psalm” in the heading, occurs 57 times and only in the headings of psalms. It probably indicates a psalm that was sung by the Levites in the temple to the accompaniment of musical instruments (e.g., Pss 3, 48). Fifty-five of the psalms include musical instructions in their heading; e.g., “For the choir director” (Ps 5); “with stringed instruments” (Ps 67); “A Song of Ascents” (Pss 120–134). These songs of ascents are arranged in poetic units to be sung as the worshipers approach the temple in Jerusalem.
Types of Psalms. Because the subject matter and content are so varied in the Psalter, a number of types or categories of psalms have been suggested. For an overview of the approaches to studying Psalms see Allen Ross, A Commentary on the Psalms, Volume 1: Psalms 1–41, Kregel Exegetical Library (Grand Rapids, MI: Kregel Academic, 2012), 65–80. Because of the complex content of the psalms, some may be categorized as more than one type. A helpful classification of the psalms is:
1. Psalms of Praise and Thanksgiving. This is often thought of as the typical psalm, because these are frequently the most familiar; examples are Pss 21, 30, 32, 34, 40, 146, and 148.
These psalms often are related to specific incidences of personal deliverance. They include a proclamation of praise to God, a report of deliverance, a renewed determination to praise, and often instruction for corporate praise.
2. Hymnic Psalms. Some praise psalms are more specifically hymnic in structure, rather than related to personal deliverance. These have the common elements of: (1) call to praise; (2) cause for praise; and (3) concluding exhortation to praise. They often include a superscription regarding the choir or a musical notation. Examples are Pss 33, 36, 105, 111, 113, 117, 135.
3. Songs. The headings/superscriptions of 15 psalms specifically identify them as songs (18, 45–46, 48, 65–68, 75–76, 83, 87–88, 92, 108). These psalms were to be sung, and some include additional musical direction. These are all psalms of praise, except Pss 83 and 88. A specific group of songs are the songs of ascents (Pss 120–134).
4. Laments. The most numerous and common psalms are laments, making up about a third of the psalms. These psalms are cries or prayers of help in times of distress. The lament psalms include (1) an introductory plea to the Lord; (2) the specific lament describing the issue; (3) confession of trust in the Lord despite the circumstances; (4) petition for help; and (5) conclusion of a vow to praise the Lord despite circumstances and regardless of deliverance. Examples of personal laments are Pss 3, 4, 12, and 22.
There are a number of national lament psalms as well. These are focused more specifically on the circumstances faced by the nation of Israel as a whole and follow the same pattern. Examples are Pss 44, 60, and 83.
5. Imprecatory Psalms. Some of the lament psalms have an imprecatory element, calling for specific judgments to fall on the enemy. The verb “imprecate” means “to pray evil against” or “to invoke disaster upon.” These prayers are the plea of God’s people for justice for atrocities committed against them personally or against the nation of Israel by the Lord’s enemies; examples include Pss 5, 10, 17, 35, 58, 59, 69, 70, 79, 83, 109, 129, 137, and 140. These psalms may seem unloving and contrary to a biblical perspective. However, they are truthful and transparent expressions by the righteous, asking God to act on behalf of His people and for His name’s sake. This is particularly true in times of warfare when destruction of the enemy was essential to the survival of the king and his people. Moreover, in these psalms, the psalmists do not take vengeance into their own hands but pray for God to execute just judgment. Imprecatory psalms were prayers for God to act according to the righteous requirements of His Word in its laws and covenants.
Some have thought that these prayers are contrary to a NT ethic. However, martyred believers in heaven offer an imprecation, asking how long before God will bring just retribution on their murderers (cf. Rv 6:10-11). Both OT and NT believers did not rejoice in the death of evil people. However, they did look forward to God’s justice, when God would bring judgment on the wicked in accordance with His word, and make the world right (2Th 1:6-10).
Background. As originally written, and in the oldest manuscripts, the psalms were not numbered, nor were there verse divisions (as is true for the whole Bible). The helpful divisions were added much later. When reading or comparing different versions of the Bible, there may be a slight discrepancy in the numbering (though not the content) of the psalms. The Septuagint—an early Greek translation of the Bible produced in the intertestamental period by and for Hellenistic Jewry—has a verse division slightly different from the Hebrew. The early church adopted the Septuagint divisions in the OT and this has been followed by Roman Catholic tradition. Later, during the Reformation, there was a return to the Hebrew enumeration of the Psalms (Geneva Bible, Luther’s German Bible, KJV), and this is the common division in Protestant Bibles.
In addition, the Christian English versions do not number the heading/superscriptions as the first verse, whereas the English translations of the Hebrew/Jewish Bible do, thus resulting in a one-verse difference in the psalms (e.g., in Ps 3 the Hebrew Bible has nine verses, whereas Christian Bibles have eight).
By recognizing Psalms as a coherent collection of writing, organized in the postexilic period, the message of the entire book becomes clearer. Certainly the later organization did not alter the original meaning of the individual psalms, but it deepened and clarified the focus to be on the coming messianic King of Israel. At the time of the final redaction, there was no Davidic king on the throne of Israel, so the psalms, especially those which speak of a King (with a capital K), are all looking forward to the future messianic King. Based on the postexilic compilation of Psalms, David C. Mitchell concludes, “the messianic theme is central to the purpose of the collection” (David C. Mitchell, The Message of the Psalter: An Eschatological Programme in the Book of Psalms [Sheffield, England: Sheffield Academic Press, 1997], 87). This would explain the way the NT writers frequently see Jesus the Messiah as the fulfillment of the psalms. They understood that He was the eschatological Davidic King anticipated in the book of Psalms.
COMMENTARY ON PSALMS
I. Book One: Responding in Worship to God’s Sovereign Election (Pss 1–41)
Psalms 1–2: The Introduction to Psalms: Properly Expressed Worship and Its Resultant Blessing
These two psalms are united by the use of the same phrase, “How blessed,” at the beginning of the first (1:1) and at the end of the second (2:12). They serve as an introduction to the book of Psalms, introducing the theme of the importance of meditation on Scripture. As an introduction to the book, these two psalms orient the reader to the purpose of the Psalms generally, which is to model the various ways to express individual and collective worship of the Lord, and the resulting blessing the righteous will find from studying God’s Word.
Psalm 1: A Model of Personally Expressed Worship
Though not supplied with a heading, this psalm may be definitively identified as an utterance of David since it is thematically united with Ps 2, which is explicitly attributed to David in Ac 4:25-26.
A. Developing the Habit of Walking with the Lord through His Word (1:1-2)
1:1-2. The psalm (and the book of Psalms) begins by linking the blessings of God to those who walk by (i.e., live, indicating a daily practice of life) and meditate (think about in all circumstances) on His Word, the Scriptures, the law of the LORD … day and night. The phrase How blessed (lit., “O, the blessedness of”; Hb. ashre) is parallel to the expression used in the Beatitudes (Mt 5:3-11), both signifying not material or circumstantial blessing (i.e., wealth, position, happiness, etc.), but the deeper and enduring blessing of a dynamic relationship with God on a daily basis. The psalmist presents a contrast of the righteous man who does not associate with the wicked. This sequence of the verbs walk, stand, and sit moves from denoting activity to denoting a state of being and indicate a whole lifestyle. The word sinners is the same word found in Gn 13:13 for the sinners in Sodom, suggesting a hardened commitment to wicked behavior.
In bright contrast to the wicked, the godly individual has an overall course of life or habit: he delight[s] in and meditates on the law of the LORD. The word law (torah) is an elastic term, generally translated “law” or “instruction.” It can refer to an individual law, the laws of Sinai, the Pentateuch, the Hebrew Bible, or spiritual instruction. Here it means all of God’s Word, not just the Pentateuch. His greatest joy in life is to think about, fill his mind with, and obey the Word of God. The verb meditates means “to mutter something under one’s breath,” referring to the quiet recitation of Scripture to one’s self. It signifies the filling of the mind with the biblical text and careful consideration of both what the text means and how it applies. In the Bible, “meditation” is often equivalent to the term “study.” This command was given to Joshua when he assumed leadership of Israel (Jos 1:6-9).
B. Producing the Fruit of Walking with the Lord through His Word (1:3)
1:3. Meditation on the Word of God is thus presented, by virtue of its inclusion in this first introductory psalm, as a basic act of worship, or, more precisely, as the foundation on which all expressions of worship must be based. The blessing of obedience is metaphorically presented as a tree producing fruit. For the one who habitually meditates and delights in God’s Word, in whatever he does, he prospers. The word prospers primarily refers here, not to immediate material prosperity, but to success—that is, spiritual success in one’s life through applying and adhering to “the law of the LORD” (v. 2). The same word is used in Is 53:10 (“and the good pleasure of the LORD will prosper in His hand”) of the success of the Messiah in reconciling people to God, accomplished in the “crushing” and “putting to grief” of Messiah as the “guilt offering” (hardly a picture of immediate material prosperity or ease).
C. Attaining the Reward of Walking with the Lord through His Word (1:4-6)
1:4-6. The fruitful life of the righteous is contrasted with the worthless life of the wicked, which is like chaff, the husk of grain blown away by the wind. The perspective (and motivation) for studying and living by God’s Word is ultimately eternal, not any immediate material prosperity. This is underscored by David’s reference to the wicked (lit., “wicked ones,” parallel to sinners in the next line) not standing in the judgment, referring to God’s judgment of all the assembled unrepentant at the Day of Judgment (cf. Mt 12:41-42; Lk 10:14; 11:31-32; Rv 20:11-15).
The reward and blessing of the righteous, by contrast, consists not only in their being able to stand in the Day of Judgment—because of their faith they are not condemned (Rm 8:1)—but also that the LORD knows the way of the righteous. This is the reality of an intimate and loving relationship with the heavenly Father. The connotation of the Hebrew verb knows generally signifies the most thorough and/or intimate knowledge (often described as a thorough experiential knowledge) of what is known. This is the typical verb used to describe conjugal relations between a husband and wife (e.g., Gn 4:1). For God to know the way of the righteous indicates His loving concern for them.
Psalm 2: A Model of Collectively Expressed Worship
This is identified as a psalm of David (cf. Ac 4:25). It is one of the several directly “messianic” utterances (as likewise applied in Ac 13:33; Heb 1:5; 5:5; cf. 2Sm 23:1 comments) that readers, either out of carelessness in interpretation or specific apologetic concerns, have often taken as referring directly and only to David—and only indirectly (typologically) if at all to Jesus. While there are, to be sure, several parallels to David’s experiences as king in this psalm, what is stated far transcends what is ever said of David. This was already recognized long ago by the early rabbinic interpreters, who also understood this psalm as applying to the King Messiah, though for polemical purposes this view was later rejected in favor of the application to David—as exemplified in the following comment on this psalm by Rashi (Rabbi Solomon ben Isaac), who flourished in the second half of the 11th century and greatly influenced the course of subsequent Jewish interpretation of the Bible: “Our ancient sages expounded the theme of this psalm with reference to the King Messiah, yet … as a rebuttal to the Christians, it is proper to explain it as referring to David.”
A significant interpretive presupposition for understanding Ps 110 as messianic is that David himself, in his last words (2Sm 23:1-5), identified the Messiah as his favorite subject in the Psalms. There David reveals, by his own authorial intent, that his psalms refer to the Messiah. This interpretation of David’s last words is not as evident in the Masoretic Text of 2Sm 23:1 as it is in the Septuagint (LXX). The LXX reading is a result of a variant vowel (cf. comments on 2 Sm 23:1-7) and yields the following translation:
These are the last words of David:
The oracle of David the son of Jesse,
The oracle of the man raised up,
Concerning the Messiah [Anointed One] of the God of Jacob,
And the Delightful One of the songs of Israel (2Sm 23:1).
In his last words, David said that the Messiah was his favorite subject in the Psalms. This gives a crucial clue to reading Davidic psalms in general and Ps 2 in particular. David claimed that he had a messianic focus in writing the Psalms. This should guide the understanding of Ps 2. Moreover, the postexilic compilation of the book of Psalms, when there was no Davidic king, should emphasize that the Psalm is not looking back at David but forward to the messianic King (see Introduction: Background).
One of the thematic connections between Pss 1 and 2 is found in the recurrence of the word “blessed” in 1:1 and 2:12. Meditation on the law of the Lord (1:1-2) leads to blessing and leads one to apprehend the source of the greatest blessings—namely, the Messiah (see especially 2:12).
A. Expressing Our Shared Persecution by the Nations (2:1-3)
2:1-3. In the Hebrew Bible, opposition to God and His people typically proceeds from the nations (lit., “Gentiles”), designating the pagan nations, directed by their kings and rulers who consistently take their stand … against the LORD and against His Anointed. The citation of this passage by the nascent church in Ac 4:25-26 is significant, for it not only clarifies that the Anointed (Hb. mashiach, from which is derived the English word “messiah”) in this passage is intended as a specific, predictive reference to Jesus Himself (the Hebrew term is also applied in the OT in a more general, nonpredictive sense to kings and priests; cf. Lv 4:3; 1Sm 24:10), but it also implies that opposition to God and Messiah Jesus are inseparable. The “chief priests and the elders” of the Jewish people to whom the early Jewish-Christian community applied this passage (Ac 4:23) would certainly not have claimed to reject the God of Israel whom they worshiped as their heavenly Father. Yet from God’s perspective one’s acceptance and worship of Him is bound up with one’s acceptance and worship of His Son, the Messiah, Jesus of Nazareth (see comments on Ps 2:11-12a). “Whoever denies the Son does not have the Father; the one who confesses the Son has the Father also” (1 Jn 2:23; see also Lk 10:16; Jn 5:23).
The verb take their stand (v. 2) was used for Goliath’s haughty posture against the Jewish warriors in 1Sm 17:16. As the giant Philistine opposed David’s people, so also the godless nations will oppose David’s prominent Son, the Messiah.
B. Expressing Our Shared Confidence in the Victory of the Son (2:4-9)
2:4-5. The Lord is in complete control despite the rebellion of the nations. The Lord sits in the heavens (“is enthroned”) and scoffs at them for their foolish behavior (cf. Ps 59:8). He will answer their uproar with His anger and fury in judgment for their wickedness and rebellion, an expression of God’s righteousness (cf. 7:11).
2:6. The Lord’s victory is certain because His Son, the King Messiah, will rule the earth from Jerusalem: I have installed My King upon Zion, My holy mountain. The location of My holy mountain is the Temple Mount in Jerusalem (cf. 2Ch 33:15; Pss 15:1; 43:3; 99:9; Is 52:1; 56:7). It is strongly suggestive of the king’s priestly character, linking it to the Temple Mount (further affirming the application to Jesus, the only one in whom both offices unite). The verb installed (Hb. nasakhti, lit., “poured out,” a synonym of “anointed” with a specifically Levitical connotation as in Ex 30:9; Hs 9:4) indicates the Lord’s setting up the messianic King.
2:7. The statement I have begotten You, which is directed from God the Father to God the Son, signifies not the production of Sonship (since all three persons of the Godhead are uncreated and eternal), but rather the Father’s declaration of the Messiah’s Sonship as announced later by Gabriel (Lk 1:32), reiterated at Jesus’ baptism (Lk 3:22), and confirmed by His resurrection (Ac 13:33; Rm 1:4). In the ancient near east, a king was considered “begotten” when he entered into kingship. This unique Person of the divine Son is the basis of the confidence of God’s people in the Lord’s victory.
2:8-9. Victory by the King (v. 6) is certain because ultimately the nations … and the very ends of the earth are His inheritance—something that is never ascribed to any Davidic king but only to the divine Messiah Himself (cf. Ps 110:6; Zch 14:9; Rv 21:22-24). He will judge the wicked and break them with a rod of iron … shatter them (cf. Gn 3:15; Nm 24:17; Ps 110:2, 5-6; Rv 2:27; 19:15).
C. Expressing Our Shared Commission to Worship the Son (2:10-12)
The collective expressions of shared persecution (vv. 1-3) and shared confidence (vv. 4-9) are here counterbalanced and completed by the expression of what has always stood at the heart of God’s self-revelation to man: God’s empathetic and loving desire that everyone—both Jew and Gentile—come to know and worship Him as the one, true God (cf. Gn 12:3; Dt 4:6-8; Ps 22:27; Is 45:22-23; 49:6; 56:7; Zch 14:16). As in the previous two expressions, so too here David focuses this collective expression on the person of God in His Son.
2:10. The section opens with a challenge to the Gentile kings to recognize God’s truth and show discernment to obey Him. This is a warning to all the judges (“leaders”) of the earth. The message is to those who had counseled together against the Lord (cf. 2:1-3) and for everyone who decides to rebel against His rulership (2:3).
2:11. The point of the inseparability of “the LORD” (God the Father) and “His Anointed” (God the Son) is here reiterated by David as an evangelistic challenge: to truly worship the LORD in a way acceptable to Him.
2:12. The commanded requirement is Do homage to the Son (lit., “kiss the Son”). Some suggest “kiss” be understood as a more affectionate synonym for the verb “worship” in the previous verse to which it clearly stands in parallel (another reason that the Son in this psalm can refer only to the divine messianic King). However, the use of the verb “to kiss” as a euphemism for “to worship” is also attested and would affirm the understanding of Do homage to the Son (cf. 1Kg 19:18; Jb 31:27; Hs 13:2). Some scholars contest this understanding, pointing out that the word translated “(the) son” (bar) is Aramaic, whereas the proper Hebrew word for “son” is ben. Since this psalm (like all the rest) is in Hebrew, it is sometimes argued that bar here should be understood as the Hebrew adverb “purely,” giving the sense “kiss purely.” However, two flaws oppose this view: (1) The Hebrew of David’s day had many Aramaic loan words (Abraham himself was an Aramean; Dt 26:5), one of which was indeed bar, “son,” as employed thrice by Solomon in Pr 31:2, (2) every one of the remaining 31 OT occurrences of the Hebrew verb “to kiss” has an explicit direct or indirect object, which would be unaccountably missing from the present verse if bar is taken as the Hebrew adverbial expression “purely.” It is better to see the phrase not as “kiss purely” but as “kiss the Son,” that is, Do homage to the Son.
Psalm 3: A Paradigm of Personal Lament
Psalm 2 deals with the promises God made to David in what is called the Davidic covenant regarding his future supreme Son, the Messiah (see comments on 2Sm 7:12-17). In Ps 3, David struggled with how that covenant could be fulfilled in light of the sinful rebellion of David’s son Absalom (for this connection, see John H. Sailhamer, NIV Compact Bible Commentary [Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 1994], 315).
The heading/superscription identifies this as a Psalm of David. Of the 41 psalms in Book One (Pss 1–41), 37 are identified as a Psalm of David; Pss 1–2, 10, and 33 are the only exceptions. In total 73 are directly attributed to him in the superscriptions. Additionally, the NT identifies David as the author of Pss 2 and 95. The word for “psalm” in the heading is mizmor; the term occurs 57 times and only in the headings of psalms. It probably indicates a psalm that was sung by the Levites in the temple to the accompaniment of musical instruments. Furthermore, Ps 3 is one of 14 psalms linked in the superscription to a specific event in David’s life (3, 7, 18, 30, 34, 51, 52, 54, 56, 57, 59, 60, 63, 142). This psalm was written by David when he fled from Absalom his son (cf. 2Sm 15–19).
A. Express Your Trouble to the Lord (3:1-2)
3:1-2. The adversaries to whom David referred were not Canaanites or other hostile Gentiles (e.g., the Arameans; see 2Sm 10), but his fellow Israelites, many of whom were rising up against him in rebellion under the leadership of his son, Absalom. These many were vividly described by Absalom’s advisor Hushai as “all Israel … from Dan even to Beersheba, as the sand that is by the sea in abundance” (2Sm 17:11). By their statement, There is no deliverance for him in God, these adversaries of David were not denying God’s power to save, but rather His will to deliver David from his circumstances (see 2Sm 16:8).
B. Declare Your Confidence in the Lord (3:3-6)
3:3-4. David affirmed, nonetheless, that God is his shield, the one who will protect him, and the One who lifts his head—that is, the one who will give him victory (on this sense of “lifting the head” see also Pss 27:6 and 110:7). For God’s answer to his cry of distress, David looked to His holy mountain, referring to Zion, and the Temple Mount in particular (see the comment on 2:6), which the Lord had chosen as His dwelling place. The source of David’s comfort was the Lord Himself (Ex 40:34; 2Sm 24:24-25; 1Kg 8:11).
3:5-6. By affirming that it was the LORD who sustains him—as opposed to David’s own ingenuity and ability—his mind was set at ease and he was able to sleep soundly, even though his adversaries numbered in the ten thousands (cf. 1Sm 18:7).
C. Present Your Petition to the Lord (3:7-8)
3:7. David’s petition, Arise, O LORD, could be translated “Rise up, O Lord,” and is a word play on his opening cry, “Many are rising up.” It sets in perspective the threat posed by David’s adversaries. The opposition that “rises up” against one, as long as that one is conducting himself according to the will of God, will be met and defeated by the “rising up” of God Himself. The concept of defeat is underscored by David’s reference to God having smitten all my enemies on the cheek—an act that is closely associated in Scripture with abasement and subjugation (cf. 1Kg 22:24).
3:8. David concluded his psalm in characteristic fashion on a theocentric (God-focused) rather than an egocentric (self-focused) note, declaring that salvation (lit., “deliverance,” as in v. 2) ultimately belongs to the LORD. That is, God determines whether, when, and how to bestow deliverance (David does not presume this will always immediately and completely resolve his affliction). David’s concern is for his people (the very ones who are his adversaries!), that God’s blessing be upon them and that God be glorified as a result. In spite of Absalom’s rebellion, David continued to hold on to God’s faithfulness and His promises in the Davidic covenant to provide salvation and deliver His people even though it looked as if the covenant could not be fulfilled through Absalom (Sailhamer, NIV Compact Bible Commentary, 315).
Psalm 4: A Paradigm of Expressing Trust in the Lord
Psalm 4 continues the theme of Ps 3, focusing on the David’s trust in the Lord. David continues his longing for the fulfillment of the Davidic covenant when David himself will be vindicated from his opponents, including Absalom (Ps 3) (Sailhamer, NIV Compact Bible Commentary, 315).
The heading states that this is a Psalm of David (Hb. mizmor; see introduction to Ps 3) and intended for the choir director—a designation that occurs 55 times in the headings of the Psalms and once at the end of Habakkuk. It probably signifies the conductor of the entire company of priestly musicians and singers whose job it was to enhance worship for the Jewish people.
A. The Basis of Trust in the Lord (4:1)
4:1. David began by emphasizing his spiritual dependency on God, employing the designation God of my righteousness (not, as in the NIV, “my righteous God”), which is meant to indicate that (1) God (as opposed to man) is the only true source of righteousness (cf. Ps 71:16; Ec 7:20; Jr 23:6; Rm 3:10), and (2) as true righteousness is found only in God, He “reckons” (i.e., “legally extends”) it to whomsoever He chooses (whether David or anyone else) as a gift (cf. Gn 15:6; Rm 3:22; 4:3-6, 24). David trusted not only in who God is (His attributes of righteousness and grace), but also in what He does—specifically, what He already did for David when He relieved him in his past distress. The specific wording here is significant, for it indicates that based on his past experience David did not expect that God would fully remove the distress, but rather that He would extend relief to David in the midst of it (cf. 1Co 10:13; 1Th 1:6; 2Tm 1:8; 1Pt 4:19; 5:10). David’s request that God hear him refers not to the act of listening (for God knows what people need even before they ask; Mt 6:8), but rather the act of providing what is most needed by the petitioner.
B. The Challenge of Trust in the Lord (4:2-5)
4:2-5. David next addressed the sons of men (lit., “sons of man”), which may refer to men of status and wealth who were failing to trust God, but instead were loving what is worthless, and aiming at deception (counterfeit gods). Whatever their precise identity, these men are unquestionably Israelites, since David exhorted them to offer sacrifices of righteousness (v. 5)—that is, sacrifices consisting not only of the proper material elements but also offered with the proper heart attitude, without which the sacrifice is meaningless (cf. Ps 51:16-19; Is 29:13). David warned them to tremble [lit., “be angry”] and do not sin (v. 4). Anger, which can be an overpowering emotion, has the potential of strengthening the temptation to sin. God had cautioned Cain in his anger to be careful, for “sin is crouching at the door; and its desire is [to master] you, but you must master it” (Gn 4:7). The wise course for anyone who becomes angry is to meditate in one’s heart upon one’s bed (v. 4), but, as Paul wrote, “Do not let the sun go down on your anger” (Eph 4:26).
C. The Result of Trust in the Lord (4:6-8)
4:6-7. David here directed his address back to the Lord, expressing the desire on behalf of himself and the many, the “godly” of v. 3. Verse 6 is literally, “Oh that someone would provide us what is good.” This understands the Hebrew clause as a hope (see the same expression in 1Sm 23:15), and is preferable to the more pessimistic interrogative translation of the NASB (Who will show us any good?). The godly, like David, know full well that God alone is the source of all good (Jms 1:17), though by phrasing their petition in this hopeful manner, they are expressing both respect and leaving room for God to respond how and when He deems best. This psalm emphasizes both the source and the blessing of trust in the Lord by adopting phraseology from the Aaronic and Mosaic benedictions (v. 1: “be gracious to me” [cf. Nm 6:25b]; v. 5: “offer the sacrifices of righteousness” [cf. Dt 33:19]; v. 6: Lift up the light of Your countenance upon us [cf. Nm 6:25a]; v. 7: when their grain and new wine abound … sleep [cf. Nm 6:26; Dt 33:28]).
4:8. David’s confidence that God, and God alone, will fully provide all that is necessary for his good enabled him to lie down and sleep even in the midst of his distress. This may well allude to David’s experience when God intervened to save his life by putting Saul and his army into a sound sleep (1Sm 26:12). In two other OT passages, God brought a deep sleep onto someone in connection with sovereignly meeting a great need (cf. Gn 2:21; 15:12).
Psalm 5: A Paradigm of Morning Devotion
Psalm 5 continues the theme of Ps 3, which is revisited in Ps 7 as well. In part, it is written against the rebellious (5:10), which may have included Absalom. But as in Ps 2:12, the righteous, like David, will be blessed as they continue their trust in God to fulfill the Davidic covenant when they will find refuge in the Anointed (5:11; see 2:2, 12) (Sailhamer, NIV Compact Bible Commentary, 315). In its heading this psalm (Hb. mizmor) is directed to the choir director (see introduction to Ps 4) and is attributed to David. That it was sung in connection with the regular morning offering in the temple is suggested by the repeated reference in v. 3 to this prayer being uttered “in the morning.” And, indeed, the phraseology of this psalm is employed in traditional Jewish morning prayers. The order of the thematic parts of this psalm is also significant in that it clearly establishes the precedence of praise to petition (focusing on God first, then one’s need). This principle is reflected not only in the Lord’s Prayer (Mt 6:9-13), but also in the early Jewish approach to prayer: “A man should always first express his praise of the Holy One, blessed be He, and only afterward express his petition” (Babylonian Talmud Berakhot 39a).
A. Affirming Submission to God (5:1-3)
5:1-3. David began by imploring God to give ear (i.e., “to attend carefully to someone or something” with the intent of responding for the petitioner’s benefit) to his words, and to consider his meditation (not groaning, as in the NASB). He followed this with reference to God as his King, underscoring that God is the true king of Israel, whereas David, like his son Solomon and all the human kings after him who “sat on the throne of the LORD” (1Ch 29:23; see also 28:5) were only custodians of God’s kingship. This opening sentiment is paralleled by the opening affirmation of God’s kingship in Jesus’ own model of prayer (Mt 6:9-10).
B. Declaring Praise of God (5:4-7)
5:4-6. In his praise David here focused on two attributes of God: His holiness and His fatherly (i.e., relational) compassion. God’s holiness is indicated by David underscoring that God is the opposite of all that is unholy. He is not a God who takes pleasure in wickedness; no evil dwells (resides, sojourns) with You. The Lord hates iniquity, falsehood, and deceit.
5:7. David emphasized that the only reason he can enter the Lord’s house and worship at His holy temple (lit., “temple of holiness,” see the comment on Ps 2:6) is because of God’s abundant lovingkindness to him. The term lovingkindness is chesed, which specifically indicates God’s covenant love, His faithful and continual expression of what is best for those who are His own under the promise of the Abrahamic covenant (see Gn 12:1-3 and discussion of this term in the Introduction to the book of Ruth). The word may also reflect David’s understanding of God’s loving choice of him as the vehicle for the Davidic covenant that includes the future coming of David’s supreme son, the Messiah (see 2Sm 7:16), which will come about through God’s faithfulness in spite of Absalom’s rebellion (see the comments on the superscription of Ps 3).
C. Presenting Petition before God (5:8-12)
5:8-10. In his petition David noted that righteousness is not found in himself or attainable on his own, but rather finds its source only in God and is attainable only by His leading (see also comment on Ps 4:1). This is a stark contrast to his wicked foes who are not reliable and whose throat is an open grave. This refers to the deceitfulness of David’s foes (see the parallelism with There is nothing reliable in what they say) who, according to several ancient Jewish sources, are sinners from among the Jewish people (in Midrash on Psalms, Ps 49:5, where Ps 5:9 is cited, referring to the “wicked” among the Jewish people, distinct from the “saints” and “the nations”; see William G. Braude, The Midrash on Psalms, [New Haven: Yale University Press, 1959], 383–384). David’s petition therefore is not only that God would protect him from physical harm (as in his military campaigns against the Philistines), but also that God would lead him in righteousness, including the Lord’s restraining him from taking merciless retribution on Israelites outwardly opposed to him (like Nabal; 1Sm 25:26) as well as granting him discernment so as to avoid the counsel (see the same word in Jb 29:21; Pr 1:31, “devices”) of ungodly allies and advisors (like Joab; see 2Sm 3:24-30, 39). David also prays that God’s judgment would fall on his foes because of their transgressions and rebellious behavior toward God (v. 10). God’s justice would be especially evident if they would fall by their own devices, being destroyed by the plots they laid for others (later in the Bible, Haman experienced this kind of justice, being hanged on the gallows he built for Mordecai, cf. Est 7:9-10). See Introduction: Types of Psalms for discussion of imprecatory psalms.
5:11-12. David is confident of the good outcome of following the Lord. Those who take refuge in Him will be glad … sing for joy. The Lord will bless the righteous and surround him with favor.
Psalm 6: A Paradigm of Petitioning God for Mercy
In its heading this psalm is directed to the choir director (see introduction to Ps 4) and attributed to David. This psalm continues the theme of David’s patience with which he awaited God’s deliverance from his enemies (see 6:3), which may have included Absalom (Ps 3). David is confident of God’s unfailing covenant love (6:4), expressed to him in the Davidic covenant (see 2Sm 7:8-17) (Sailhamer, NIV Compact Bible Commentary, 316).
A. Fully Admitting One’s Spiritual Position (6:1-5)
6:1-3. David begins his petition for God’s mercy by fully and sincerely admitting his guilt. He asks for the LORD to be merciful and not rebuke and chasten him in the Lord’s anger or wrath (cf. Pr 3:11). David made this admission with the heartfelt conviction that he was confessing his sin not to a distant, wrathful God, but rather to the God who looks on him as a father looks on his son. This is the implication of the terms rebuke and chasten, which in the Bible are primarily the responsibility of the father to administer to his children (see, for example, Pr 3:12). David’s spiritual condition caused physical consequences so that his bones were dismayed. His soul, or his mental condition, is greatly dismayed because of his distress. Asking how long (or “when” or “why”) is an expression of anguish asking for relief; it shows the psalmist’s intimate relationship with the Lord and the confidence the righteous can have in inquiring of the Lord for mercy, help, and understanding. (Asking how long is a common question, cf. 13:1-2; 35:17; 74:10; 79:5; 80:4; 89:46; asking “why” is common as well, cf. 10:1; 22:1; 42:9; 43:5.)
6:4-5. Indicative of his relationship is David’s appeal to Return, O LORD, rescue my soul based on God’s lovingkindness (see the comment on this word in 5:7). David makes fivefold use in this opening section of God’s covenant name LORD (Yahweh). He pleads for mercy in life, for there is no opportunity to mention the Lord in death. Regarding Sheol, see the comment on Ps 49:10-14, 15.
B. Fully Expressing One’s Circumstantial Anxieties (6:6-7)
6:6-7. Though David’s distressing circumstances may have been a just expression of God’s loving chastisement for his sin(s), they were nonetheless a source of anxiety and—to a certain extent—even depression. These are natural human responses to ongoing and unfavorable circumstances, which can take a toll on both body and mind: I am weary … I dissolve my couch (bed) with my tears … he has become old because of all [his] adversaries. Such responses are not sinful, and, as modeled here by David, are an acceptable—even incumbent—part of worship to bare one’s turmoil and distress to God, who as a loving and sympathetic Father (cf. Heb 4:15) earnestly desires to hear His children (see the comments on Ps 142). This act of baring his heart to God serves as a balm to soothe David’s distress. Although God had not yet resolved the negative circumstances and removed David’s adversaries, David was beginning to experience the Lord’s comfort.
C. Fully Affirming One’s Covenantal Expectation (6:8-10)
6:8-9. David separated himself from all … who do iniquity and was confident that God, because of His covenantal relationship with David, had heard his weeping and supplication (i.e., this specific supplication) and, in general (as indicated by the present/imperfect tense), receives his prayer.
6:10. Typical of David’s psalms of lament, complaint, and petition, he ended on a positive note, characterized not by a look back at what God had done to resolve his situation, but rather by a look forward to what God would do—if not in this life, then unquestionably in the next, when all my enemies will be ashamed. They will finally be judged and David, in the company of those who love God, will stand in the full light of His presence (cf. Pss 16:11; 142:7).
Psalm 7: A Paradigm of Imprecation
The heading identifies this psalm as A Shiggaion of David. The term Shiggaion occurs only here in the Bible and the meaning is unclear. It perhaps means “to be exhilarated,” as a similar Hebrew word is used in Pr 5:19-20 and Hab 3:1. Thus it would designate a highly emotionally charged type of psalm. This psalm presents David’s emotional response to the news of Absalom’s death. The content of this psalm concerns a certain Benjamite named Cush, who is mentioned nowhere else in the Bible. Yet he is almost certainly to be identified as one of Saul’s soldiers who was seeking, with his king, to kill David, since (1) the psalm deals with David’s enemies, individually (vv. 2-5, 12-16) as well as collectively (vv. 1, 6-9), and (2) there are several clear verbal parallels to the two situations in which David was cornered by Saul and his men in 1Sm 24 and 26. For example, for Ps 7:1, “Save me from all those who pursue me,” see 1Sm 24:14; 26:24. For 7:3, “If there is injustice in my hands,” see 2Sm 24:11; 26:18. For 7:8, “The LORD judges the peoples,” see 1Sm 26:12, 15; and “Vindicate me, O LORD, according to my righteousness” (cf. 1Sm 26:23).
Another possibility is identifying Cush, a Benjamite with the Cushite who notified David of the death of Absalom in 2Sm 18:21-33. This forges a link with Ps 3 and here expresses David’s reaction to his son’s death (Sailhamer, NIV Compact Bible Commentary, 316).
A. Know What to Expect (7:1-5)
7:1-4. David declares his trust in the Lord in dangerous times: O LORD my God, in You I have taken refuge. After an initial appeal to God’s sovereign protection (Save me), David affirmed the possibility that his distressing circumstances were in fact a merited expression of God’s chastisement (if I have done this) for some injustice or evil that he had committed, and of which he was either unaware or unrepentant.
7:5. If such were the case, David was not only willing to submit to God’s chastisement, but he also earnestly encouraged it: Let the enemy pursue my soul and overtake it … and trample my life. For David, what was most important was that his situation bear out the righteousness of God (on which note he ended this psalm in v. 17), not David’s own comfort and political-military success. This sentiment is likewise evident in David’s words in 1Sm 26:19, where he suggested that Saul was “stirred” up against him by the Lord, in which case he asked that the Lord “accept an offering,” David’s sin offering.
B. Appeal to the Lord for Vindication (7:6-16)
7:6-8. Recognizing that his adversaries, who may have included Absalom, were motivated by evil, David implored God to arise in His anger and lift Himself up against them. This phrase is used in the Pentateuch to describe Israel’s divinely championed military victory (cf. Nm 23:24; 24:9). David asked God to vindicate him completely, but only according to his righteousness and the integrity that is in him.
7:9-11. David also affirmed that God judges not only men’s actions, but also their hearts and minds, that is, the thoughts and motives that underlie actions, whether good or bad. He appeals to the Lord as the righteous judge. The Lord’s judgments are not reserved only for a future time, but He has indignation every day.
7:12-16. God is ready to act against a man who does not repent. He will prepare, sharpen His sword, and bend His bow to judge the wicked. His evil (wickedness, falsehood, v. 14) and mischief will return upon his own head when the Lord judges him.
C. Thank the Lord Regardless of His Answer (7:17)
7:17. Again David ended his petition by giving thanks to the LORD. He is expressing gratitude and praise for whatever God chooses to do; no matter what it is, it will be consistent with God’s perfect righteousness. God chose not to resolve David’s persecution by Saul for several years. Nevertheless, God kept His promises to David and vindicated him before his opponents and made him the king of Israel.
Psalm 8: A Paradigm of Praise
David concluded Ps 7 with praise for God’s righteousness exhibited in his vindication of David and the bringing down of David’s adversaries, whether Saul or Absalom. Psalm 8 continues praising God, including “the son of man” (v. 4), a concept linked to the Son in whom the righteous find refuge in 2:12. Psalm 8 is appropriately understood as a messianic psalm (Sailhamer, NIV Compact Bible Commentary, 316).
Psalm 8 is cited four times in the NT, where it is recognized as a prophecy of Messiah, three of which are in direct application to Messiah (1Co 15:27; Eph 1:22; Heb 2:6-10; additionally Mt 21:16 cites this psalm). The psalmist understood that this song would be fulfilled directly by the Messiah. “The son of man” is a direct link to the “Son” of Ps 2:7, 12, and appears to be associated with the “Son of Man” in Dn 7:10-14. As a royal figure, He is crowned with “glory and majesty,” and rules over all creation (vv. 5-6). As a human being, He is “a little lower than God” (v. 5), not in His essence but in His human attributes (here the word “God” likely has its less common meaning, “angels” [LXX] or “the angels” [NIV], as it does in Ps 82:6 and 1Sm 28:13—hence the Son of Man in His incarnation is less powerful than angels although greater in His essence as God). As the Son of Man, the Lord Jesus fulfills humanity’s ideal (all that humanity was meant to be and do) and directly fulfills this Psalm. Only by being “united with Him” (Rm 6:5) through faith—and hence “in Christ” (one of Paul’s favorite expressions; cf. 1Co 1:30; 3:1; 4:10, 15, 17; 15:18-19, etc.)—are believers able to experience the application of this ideal as “fellow heirs with Christ” (Rm 8:17).
For the heading of this psalm, see the comments introducing Ps 3. A Gittith was a stringed musical instrument, mentioned here and in the heading of Pss 81 and 84.
A. Reflect on How God Uses Men (8:1-2)
8:1-2. The opening phrase, O LORD, our Lord, How majestic is Your name in all the earth is repeated at the end of the psalm (8:9) as a literary device (an inclusio; see Introduction: Genre) highlighting the main theme of the psalm, which is to praise God for His majesty as expressed in His creation of and interaction with humanity. In this opening clause, David affirmed God’s majestic name, which is indicative of His power and glory evident in all the earth. David also affirmed Israel’s submission to the one true God. This is indicated by the first LORD (Hb. Yahweh) that represents the unique covenant name of the true God, which is conjoined to the second Lord (Hb. adonenu), which represents the Hebrew term for “master” (one to whom the speaker is subject). Verse 2a is cited by Jesus in Mt 21:16 (see the comments there).
B. Reflect on Why God Cares for People (8:3-5)
8:3-5. The heavens and all that is in them, including the moon and the stars, are described by David as the work of God’s fingers. God is declared and acknowledged as Creator. On the application of vv. 4-6 to Messiah in Heb 2, see above and the comments on Heb 2:6-10.
C. Reflect on What God Has Given People (8:6-9)
8:6-9. God gave the son of man to rule over what is described as the works of His hands, denoting products intended for use and enjoyment (cf. Gn 1:28). The second half of v. 6 is cited twice in the NT (1Co 15:27 and Eph 1:22), in both instances with direct reference to Christ and (redeemed) humanity’s fulfillment in Him of their ideal to rule over “all things” (see esp. Eph 1:22-23, “and [God] gave Him as head over all things to the church, which is His body, the fullness of Him who fills all in all”). The emphasis on man’s rule over the works of God’s hands also naturally indicates man’s precedence over all other parts of creation, that mankind was created as the pinnacle and crown of God’s creative work and the object for which all that work was intended (see the comments on Gn 1:26-27).
Psalm 9: A Meditation on God’s Justice: God as the Vindicator of the Righteous
Regarding the heading of this psalm, see introduction to Ps 4. The word Muth-labben occurs only here. If taken as a literal Hebrew phrase, it means “on the death of a son” (perhaps Absalom, 2Sm 18:33). Or it could be a word for a musical instrument. The meaning is unclear. It is helpful to take the meaning of “death of the Son” when read in context with the exaltation of the Son of Man in Ps 8:5, and in fact the writer of Hebrews indicates that the death of the Son resulted in Him being crowned with glory and honor and providing salvation for His people (Heb 2:8-9). The theme of Ps 9 is God’s reign in Zion, the location of the kingdom of the messianic Son; thus, reading and understanding Pss 8 and 9 together is most helpful (Sailhamer, NIV Compact Bible Commentary, 316–317).
Pss 9 and 10 together are written as a modified acrostic, with the stanzas beginning with a consecutive letter of the Hebrew alphabet. Moreover the two psalms share certain parallels in structure, phrasing, and themes that suggest both were composed as a unit. Structurally, the beginning of Ps 9 mirrors the ending of Ps 10 (an inclusio), with a declaration of confidence in God. Also, both psalms employ several of the same or closely parallel expressions.
A. Declaring One’s Confidence in the Vindicator (9:1-2)
9:1-2. David begins by expressing his determination (I will) to give thanks to the LORD … tell of His wonders … be glad and exult in Him and sing praise to His name. God’s wonders is a term in its various forms that denotes God’s powerful actions (i.e., miracles; see also, e.g., Ex 34:10). Because of His wonders (and wonderfulness) David affirmed that God is the Most High (preeminent over any other existing authority), which in turn established the basis of David’s ensuing appeal to God as the preeminent judicial authority and ultimate vindicator of the oppressed.
B. Affirming the Established Record of the Vindicator (9:3-12)
9:3-4. David proclaims his confidence in God as he sees his enemies turn back. The Lord is the preeminent vindicator who maintained my just cause. He affirms the Lord’s past and present record as a judge of righteousness (literally, as opposed to the NASB’s judging righteously; elsewhere this expression occurs only in Jr 11:20, again referring to God), as consistently and comprehensively borne out from the following three perspectives: first, God’s vindication of David personally (vv. 3-4), in which David’s words you have maintained my just cause “as a judge of righteousness,” hearkens specifically to his words in 1Sm 24:15 (“The LORD therefore be judge and decide between you and me; and may He see and plead my cause and deliver me”).
9:5-10. Second, God vindicates the oppressed generally. He has rebuked the nations (cf. 2:1-6) and His blotting out the name of the wicked recalls God’s judgment and annihilation of all the wicked among humanity during the flood (cf. Gn 6:7; 7:4, 23). God’s vindication is based on His eternality: the LORD abides forever, and He will judge the world in righteousness and equity.
Third, the Lord is a stronghold in times of trouble and He will never forsake those who know [His] name … trust [Him] and seek Him. Trusting in His name means to trust in His whole character and identity. God’s vindication of His people is implied by the expression those who know Your name, which is elsewhere applied to the nation of Israel, the ones to whom God’s name was “made known” (cf. Ex 3:13-15; 6:2-6; 1Ch 28:9; Ezk 20:5). The expression those who seek You is applied in the OT to Israelites and proselytes (cf. Ex 18:15; Ezr 4:2).
9:11-12. The response to God’s righteous judgment is the exhortation to sing praises to the LORD, who dwells in Zion. God’s heavenly throne (v. 7) has a counterpart in the place He has chosen as His earthly residence, Jerusalem (2:6; 3:4; 20:2; 132:13-14). The message is to declare among the peoples His deeds, which recalls the specific OT mission of Israel (cf. 1Ch 16:8; Ps 105:1 [with v. 6]; Is 12:4).
C. Making One’s Appeal to the Vindicator (9:13-20)
9:13-16. On the basis of his confidence in God and His proven record as the preeminent and perfectly righteous judge, David now made his appeal, imploring that God be gracious to him and see (in the sense of assessing and responding to David’s need; see the comments on Ps 4:6 and Gn 1:4-5) his affliction. David’s motivation, as always, is not his own ease or comfort, but rather that the glory of God might be manifest—that he might have yet one thing more to speak of when he tells of all God’s praises, both for His granting salvation to David as well as for executing judgment on the wicked.
9:17-20. The fate of the wicked and those who forget God is to return (more literally “turn”) to Sheol. On David’s reference to Sheol (v. 17), which is not to be confused with the “hell” or “Hades” of the NT, see the comment on Ps 49:14-15. In contrast, the needy and afflicted have hope in the Lord, who will judge the wicked.
Psalm 10: A Meditation on God’s Justice: God as the Judge of the Wicked
The omission of a heading from Ps 10 is probably because of its composition link to the previous psalm, with which it shares clear structural, verbal, and thematic parallels (see introduction to Ps 9). This psalm would also have been written by David.
A. Affirming the Need for the Judge (10:1-11)
10:1-4. The psalmist opens with a heartfelt expression of anguish and dismay, Why do You stand afar off, O LORD? It seems as if God is hidden in the face of the ongoing activity of the wicked. Yet the psalmist’s complaint is ultimately motivated not by the desire that the wicked be punished or the afflicted be relieved of their distress, but by the glory and honor of the Lord. God’s holding back punishment, even though the wicked man curses and spurns Him (v. 3), seems to encourage the thoughts of the wicked that there is no God (v. 4).
10:5-11. The wicked person sees that he prospers at all times and God’s judgments are out of his sight (v. 5). He does many wicked things such as killing the innocent and catching the afflicted, causing the unfortunate to fall into his clutches (vv. 8-10); yet he believes God will not judge him, for he believes either He has forgotten or He is unable to see it (v. 11; see the comments on Ps 142). The wicked in view here includes both Jew and Gentile (sin being a human, not an ethnic problem), as v. 7 is cited and applied in Rm 3:14.
B. Making One’s Appeal to the Judge (10:12-15)
10:12-15. The psalmist implores God to take action using the same phrase as the previous psalm (Arise, O LORD, cf. 9:19), pleading for God’s judgment, for “they are but men” (9:20). The psalmist followed up his appeal with an affirmation that God has seen the mischief of the wicked (contra their assertion in v. 11, “He will never see it”) and has been the helper (from the same Hebrew root as “helper” in Gn 2:18, 20) to the unfortunate (lit., “dejected”) and the orphan (v. 14). The question is not if, but when, God will break the arm (an idiom signifying the crushing of both power and glory; cf. Jb 22:8-9) of the wicked and seek out (lit., “requite”) his wickedness (contra the assertion in v. 13: You will not require it).
C. Declaring One’s Confidence in the Judge (10:16-18)
10:16-18. The psalm concludes with a declaration of praise: The LORD is King forever and ever. He has a confident look at the final, future state, when everyone will recognize the LORD for who He is and always has been—the true King of all the earth (cf. 47:7)—and nations (lit., “Gentiles,” i.e., those opposed to the true God and His people) will have perished from His land (i.e., all of the redeemed/recreated “new earth”; cf. Zch 14:9; Rv 21:1). The use of the past (i.e., perfect) tense verbal expression—in this case, have perished—is a common feature of prophetic-predictive statements in the OT and is intended to underscore the absolute certainty of a future event. Such events are described, as it were, from God’s timeless perspective, as if they had already happened. The LORD had heard the request of the humble and would vindicate the orphan and the oppressed. The man who is of the earth, the person who is not following God, will no longer cause terror because they will no longer be in power over the righteous and innocent (cf. 49:12, 29; 56:4, 11; 62:9; 118:6-9).
Psalm 11: An Anatomy of Trust
For the heading of this psalm, see introduction to Ps 4. Though no historical event is mentioned in the heading, the imagery of David’s words in v. 1 (“Flee as a bird to your mountain”) bear a close similarity to his words in 1Sm 26:20 (“the king of Israel has come out … just as one hunts a partridge in the mountains”), suggesting the latter as a likely venue. As in Ps 10, the theme of trust in God when the wicked are powerful continues here. In 2:12 blessedness belongs to the one who seeks refuge in the Anointed. In Ps 11 the future deliverance from the Lord (vv. 4-7) also involves refuge (11:1), with such refuge coming from the Lord through the Anointed One here as well (Sailhamer, NIV Compact Bible Commentary, 317).
A. The Temptation against Trusting God: The Strength of the Wicked (11:1-3)
11:1-3. The psalm begins with a declaration of intent: In the LORD I take refuge. But the temptation not to trust God is represented by the apparent overpowering strength of the wicked. Their power is here underscored by the contrast between David as a bird (lit., “sparrow,” the smallest of birds) set on by a multitude of wicked (the Hb. is plural). They have locked him in their sights, suggested by the figure of bowstrings pulled back and ready to shoot. In such a situation it seems that even the foundations—a figure of speech for societal order and authorities (cf. Pss 75:3; 82:5; Ezk 30:4; Gl 2:9)—are destroyed and there is nowhere the righteous can turn for true justice.
B. The Basis for Trusting God: Who God Is and What He Does (11:4-7a)
11:4-7a. However bleak the situation might seem, David found assurance and relief for his anxiety in the sure knowledge that the LORD is in His holy temple, that is, heaven, of which the earthly temple was only “a copy and shadow” (Heb 8:5). This point is further driven home by the parallel statement, the LORD’s throne is in heaven. This indicates God’s dual role, embodied and eternally fulfilled in the Anointed One, the Son of God as both king (His throne) and priest (His being in the holy temple), a combination of offices otherwise forbidden among the Israelites (see the comment on 2:6). David found relief from his distress, in other words, from the knowledge that just as God’s holy throne is beyond the realm of man, permanently established and untouchable, so too is His will (and hence His promises to David) beyond the ability of man to rescind. They are untouchable by those who oppose it.
While God tests (a verb used for refining metals to determine their quality) the righteous and the wicked, in the end He will bring just punishment in this life or the next on the wicked and the one who loves violence (a word always denoting wicked violence, as in Gn 6:11 and Is 53:9). He will rain snares (bird traps) upon them. The variant reading in Symmachus (author of an ancient Greek translation of the OT), “coals of fire,” makes more sense in context. Yet this seems to be an attempt to harmonize this word with the phrases that follow. Therefore, it is best to stick with the Masoretic reading, which pictures the Lord hurling snares to trap the wicked—they will be caught like birds (in contrast to their telling David to flee like a bird, v. 1). God will also bring them judgment—Fire and brimstone and burning wind (v. 6).
C. The Ultimate Hope of Trusting God: Beholding His Face (11:7b)
11:7b. By contrast, the ultimate hope of the upright is to behold His face. This is a unique (and perhaps the greatest) hope for believers, looking forward not simply to worshiping an eternally transcendent God, but enjoying intimate fellowship with Him (see the comments on Gn 1:26; 2:7; 3:8). In seeing God’s face, His person and presence are revealed. Jesus Himself referred to this same idea in the sixth beatitude: “Blessed are the pure in heart (synonymous with the Hb. term here translated upright), for they shall see God” (Mt 5:8).
Psalm 12: Reflecting on Divine Deliverance
For the heading of this psalm, see introduction to Ps 4. This psalm expands on the theme of times of trouble and oppression for God’s people (vv. 1-4), and here God’s help is both a present one and will also come in the future when the kingdom is established on earth as it is in 11:4-7 (Sailhamer, NIV Compact Bible Commentary, 317).
A. Reflecting on the Need for Deliverance (12:1-2)
12:1-2. David’s call for deliverance is prompted by the increasing scarcity of the godly man and faithful … from among the sons of men—which leaves a void inevitably filled by a corresponding increase of ungodliness. By virtue of the implied contrast between these two verses, the godly/faithful are not simply those who do what God requires, but those who strive to do so with their whole heart (i.e., devoted and sincerely “faith-filled”). As depicted in the OT, both one’s thoughts and one’s words proceed from the heart (i.e., the “heart” and the “mind” are synonymous in the OT), and hence one who thinks one thing and says or does another is described as having “two hearts,” or a double heart. Those to whom David here refers may well have been saying and even doing what God required, yet their hearts were not motivated by commensurate faith and devotion, and therefore God wanted none of it (cf. Ps 51:16-17; Is 29:13; 64:6; and comment on Gn 4:3-5). The concept of deceit and double-mindedness is further underscored by the statement in v. 2, They speak falsehood to one another (lit., “a man toward his neighbor”), which recalls the ninth commandment in Dt 5:20: “You shall not bear false witness [lit., “a witness of falsehood”] against your neighbor.”
B. Reflecting on the Process of Deliverance (12:3-5)
12:3-5. By his appeal May the LORD, David was not addressing whether God would bring deliverance, but when. David wanted this deliverance to be nothing less than the final deliverance that will attend the establishing of God’s kingdom, as indicated by (1) the expression all flattering lips and (2) the verbatim repetition of the words “Now I will arise,” says the LORD in Is 33:10, in a clearly eschatological context. This is also seen in God’s declaration, I will set him in the safety [lit., “I will establish him in the deliverance”] for which he longs, and in the description of His coming kingdom in Is 26:1: “In that day … He sets up walls and ramparts for security.”
C. Reflecting on the Provider of Deliverance (12:6-8)
12:6-8. David’s eschatological perspective continues into this last section, but these verses also contain the promise of present comfort for the afflicted righteous (see v. 7). Here David focuses on (1) the purity of the words of the LORD (i.e., revelation) that are compared to silver … refined seven times, emphasizing their superlative quality (i.e., to the highest degree possible: the purest) and (2) the Lord’s faithfulness to His promises grounded in those pure words (cf., e.g., the promises of the Davidic covenant in 2Sm 7:12-17) that He will keep and preserve the one who loves Him, like David, from this wicked generation forever. This promise does not guarantee the preservation of the godly from affliction and oppression by the wicked in this life, but rather from the fate of the wicked (cf. Pss 37:28 and 97:10).
Psalm 13: A Prayer for Personal Deliverance
For an explanation of the heading of this psalm, see introductions to both Pss 3 and 4. The psalm is divided structurally into three parts, each part containing three components: first, David felt God had forgotten him (v. 1). David then realized God had not, and was considering David’s situation (v. 3a), resulting in David, once again, trusting in God (v. 5a). Second, David’s heart was grieved about his situation and that of the righteous (v. 2a), until God enlightened David (v. 3b) so that David’s heart rejoiced (v. 5b). Third, David’s enemies appeared to be exalted over him (v. 2b). David appealed to God lest his adversaries “overcome” him (v. 4). Finally, David sang to the Lord when he realized God would deliver him (v. 6).
A. Express Need for God’s Deliverance (13:1-2)
13:1-2. David once again expressed a heartfelt lament to God, How long, O LORD? Will You forget me forever? It is spoken as a son to his father with whom he shared a deep emotional and psychological bond. David’s anguish, having sorrow in my heart all the day, comes from feeling forgotten by God—a figure of speech known as “anthropomorphism” (attributing a human quality or characteristic to God). Rather than being the victim of disinterest or fickleness on God’s part, this disruption is further characterized by David as an act of divine chastisement for (his) sin, as implied by his reference to God hiding (not removing) His face (i.e., “presence”). Just as this hiding of God’s presence is presented in Dt 31:17-18 as the culminating chastisement for the sins of God’s national son, Israel, so too does it apply to the individual son (or daughter) of God (cf. 1Co 10:11). And just as one of the ways by which God hid His presence was to abstain from communication with His sinning people—whether directly or indirectly through dreams, lots, and prophets (see the introduction to the book of Esther)—so too does He abstain from such communication with David, explaining why David referred to taking counsel in his soul (i.e., with himself).
B. Express Appeal for God’s Deliverance (13:3-4)
13:3-4. David implored God to consider his situation and answer him. The verb consider is typically employed in the OT to indicate not just careful attention to something, but also a sense of affinity with, acceptance of, and pleasure in the object of that attention (as in Gn 19:26; Ps 119:6; Am 5:22—all of which are generally rendered by the verb “look”). Without God’s help, David knew there was no hope.
C. Express Confidence in God’s Deliverance (13:5-6)
13:5-6. In this final section, as characteristically in his psalms, David concluded on a note of trust, gratitude, and praise of God: But I have trusted in Your lovingkindness. Despite God’s not yet having answered David’s appeal, indeed He is more than deserving of David’s praise and gratitude for (1) who He is (i.e., a God characterized by lovingkindness; cf. 5:7 comments), (2) what He has promised ultimately to do (i.e., bring full and final salvation, as in Ps 12:5), and (3) what He has already done (dealt bountifully with David [lit., brought David redemption]; for this word, see the comment on Ps 116:7).
Psalm 14: An Anatomy of Human Folly
This psalm is repeated, with minor variations, in Ps 53, the repetition being intended to emphasize the unchanging nature of human folly. For the heading of this psalm, see introduction to Ps 4. Though the focus of the psalm is on the lack of faith of the Gentile nations in and around Canaan and their opposition to the God of Israel and His people (see especially vv. 4-7), verbal parallels between vv. 1-3 and other OT passages, as well as the citation of these verses in Rm 3:10-12, indicate that the indictment for lack of faith (i.e., folly, biblically defined) applies in principle to all people, “both Jews and Greeks” (Rm 3:9).
A. The Essence of Human Folly (14:1)
14:1. This psalm begins with a key idea for life: The fool has said in his heart, “There is no God.” The word fool (Hb. nabal), biblically defined, refers to one who is morally deficient. He lives his life believing that there is no God—which may refer either to the denial of His existence (i.e., atheism), for which there is no excuse (cf. Ps 19:1; Rm 1:19-20), or to the denial of divine justice (cf. 10:4). A vivid biblical illustration of just such a fool is the man whom David solicited for help, Nabal, whose very name is the same word employed here, meaning “fool” (cf. 1Sm 25). Nabal’s rejection of the sovereignty of the Lord and His anointed—just like that of the fool depicted in this psalm—is ultimately, inevitably requited by God: “the LORD struck Nabal and he died” (1Sm 25:38). People with this attitude are corrupt and there is no one who does good.
B. The Pervasiveness of Human Folly (14:2-6)
14:2-3. Despite the foolish denial of God’s existence, He does indeed exist. David’s poetic description of God having looked down from heaven … to see refers not to the physical act of seeing from an upward location, but rather to His ongoing assessment of the heart of humanity. The unchanging conclusion of this assessment is that there are none who seek after God (cf. Jr 17:9-10). This is a universal reality of the sinfulness of the human condition: They have all turned aside … become corrupt (cf. Rm 3:23). The full truth of God’s Word, and the gospel in particular, will never be understood and accepted “unless the Father … draws him” (Jn 6:44).
14:4-6. The contrast here is between the workers of wickedness who do not call upon the Lord and the righteous who make the LORD their refuge.
C. The Antithesis of Human Folly (14:7)
14:7. Here is a hope and call for the salvation of Israel that will come out of Zion (cf. comments on 2:6; 9:11). Bearing out the statement that “faith is the assurance of things hoped for” (Heb 11:1), David focused on the object of faith for the righteous among his people (vv. 4-5), namely, the future and final salvation of Israel when God restores His captive people (lit., “restores the fortunes of His people”; cf. 126:1-3). To “restore His captive people” is often interpreted wrongly as a restoration from the Babylonian captivity several hundred years after this was written. To restore Israel’s fortunes refers to that time when the Lord Himself smelts away Israel’s remaining dross (cf. Is 1:25) and makes them what they were always intended to be: “a kingdom of priests and a holy nation” (Ex 19:6), redeemed, righteous, and at rest (see the comment on Ps 95:11). At that time Jacob will rejoice, Israel will be glad (cf. Ps 53:6). These are two names for the nation of Israel, taken from the patriarch, and indicate all the people of Israel (Gn 32:28; e.g., Pss 20:1; 46:7, 11; 146:5; Is 46:13).
Psalm 15: An Anatomy of the Truly Faithful
For the heading of this psalm, see the comments on Ps 3. Thematically it serves as a link between the previous and the following psalms, presenting the counterpart of the fool (i.e., the unrighteous) described in Ps 14 while at the same time anticipating the specific content of faith described in Ps 16. The righteous whom God will rescue is mentioned in 14:5. In Ps 15, the characteristics of the righteous are presented (Sailhamer, NIV Compact Bible Commentary, 318).
A. The Desire of the Truly Faithful (15:1)
15:1. David began this psalm with a question related to the note he introduced in Ps 14 regarding God’s relationship to the wicked and the righteous: Who may abide in Your tent. … dwell on Your holy hill? This asks who would be permitted in the tabernacle (tent) of God or have access to the temple mount (holy hill; see the comment on Ps 2:6). In sum, David is asking who can worship the Lord in His dwelling place.
B. The Qualities of the Truly Faithful (15:2-5a)
15:2-3. A person who has access to God walks with integrity (cf. Ps 1) and practices righteousness, as well as speaks truth in his heart (cf. Ps 1:2)—that is, his thoughts and motivations are characterized by righteousness and love. This point of making God the priority of life and loving Him with a whole heart is a central theme throughout the Bible, and is emphasized just as much in the OT as in the NT (e.g., Gn 6:5; Dt 6:4-9; 30:6, 10; Ps 51:17; Pr 23:7; Is 29:13), and epitomized in both testaments by the two great commandments: to love God and one’s neighbor (Lv 19:18; Dt 6:5; Mt 22:36-40). The second of these is here intimated by the statement that the righteous does no evil to his neighbor.
15:4-5a. This section is somewhat of an illustration of Ps 1. The righteous man will despise a reprobate, but honors those who fear the LORD (cf. 111:10). Furthermore, he always keeps his word, even when difficult (swears to his own hurt) and is always ethical in money matters, consistently showing concern for the innocent.
C. The Final State of the Truly Faithful (15:5b)
15:5b. The hope of the truly faithful, whatever he may experience in this life, is that he will never be shaken, that is, he will never lose or be separated from his promised inheritance of life in the new creation in the presence of God (cf. Rm 8:38-39). Implicit in this affirmation, as highlighted in the following psalm where the same phraseology is employed, is that the faithful will never be shaken because the Lord Himself is at their right hand (Ps 16:8), referring to the believer’s reliance on God (including His Word and His character), the only unshakable foundation in this corrupt and crumbling world (the same phraseology is used in Pss 21:8; 112:6; 125:1; Pr 10:30; 12:3).
Psalm 16: Confidence in Life and Death
One of the characteristics of the righteous is confidence in God’s ability to resurrect, exhibited in David’s confidence that God would not abandon him, or his supreme Son, the Messiah, to the grave (Sailhamer, NIV Compact Bible Commentary, 318). Because David was a prophet he “looked ahead and spoke of … the Christ [the Messiah]” (Ac 2:31). In this messianic psalm, the emphasis is on the resurrection of Messiah (see Introduction: Background).
In its heading, this psalm, attributed to David, is identified as a Mikhtam, a designation that is also applied to Pss 56–60 (all also by David). Though the meaning of this term is not entirely clear, several of the ancient translations (LXX, the Targum, and the Vulgate) construe it as the designation for an engraving or inscription in stone, suggesting that this psalm played an especially prominent role in the liturgy and ritual culture of ancient Israel—as indeed it does play in later rabbinic Judaism, being appointed for recitation on various occasions and cited in connection with ritual and theological fundamentals in the writings of prominent rabbinic authorities (e.g., Maimonides, Moses Isserles).
A. The Confidence of the Psalmist (16:1)
16:1. At the outset, David gives a summary statement of his prayer to the Lord, that God would keep him safe. He is affirming not just the identity but also the exclusive sovereignty of the God (Hb. el) in whom He takes refuge. David’s confidence in the Lord rests on understanding of the promise of Messiah, as demonstrated in the following verses.
B. The Prayer of the Messiah (16:2-11)
Although the English versions generally read “I said to the LORD” (v. 2), the Hebrew reads “You said to the LORD.” The “You” of whom David spoke is the Messiah (see the comments on 2 Sm 23:1, explaining how the Messiah was David’s favorite subject in the Psalms, as well as comments on Ps 2), indicating that the rest of the psalm contains the words of Messiah to the Lord. The Messiah’s prayer deals with two aspects of His life. First, He expresses His delight in the Lord in this life (16:2-8). Then He reveals His confidence in the Lord when facing death (16:9-11).
1. The Lord Is His Delight in Life (16:2-8)
16:2. David is the author of this psalm but he is writing the prayer of the Messiah (see previous comments). Hence the Messiah gives several reasons He delights in the Lord in this life. First, He delights in the Lord’s goodness (I have no good besides You), indicating that God alone is the source of anything truly good (or “beneficial,” as the term may also be translated) for Him, and hence for anyone.
16:3-4. Second, the Messiah expresses His delight in the Lord’s people. He speaks of the faithful who were His delight. They are identified as those who share his faith in the sovereignty of God and who demonstrated such through their obedience to His Word (cf. Nm 15:40; Pss 34:9; 89:5, 7). They are also called saints who are in the earth, that is, people who live their daily life focused on the Lord, set apart in their attitudes and actions to serve the Lord (cf. Lv 20:7-7; Ps 1); it does not mean individuals who have been canonized. These godly associates are further called majestic ones, or noble ones. In contrast to following the Lord, there are sorrows for those who have bartered (more correctly translated “hastened”) to follow after another god. The messianic King rejected their evil idolatry, refusing their pagan worship.
16:5-6. Third, the Messiah explains His delight in the Lord’s portion. This is an allusion to the tribe of Levi, which did not receive a portion in the land for an inheritance. Instead, the Lord was their portion (Dt 10:9). Therefore, He rejoices that the (boundary) lines have fallen to me in pleasant places, meaning He, like the Levites, has received a spiritual inheritance and heritage.
16:7-8. Fourth, the Messiah finds His delight in the Lord’s presence. His Father is present with Him as a guide. As such, the Lord counseled Him and instructs Him. The Father is also present with Him as a guard—the Lord is at His right hand, guarding and protecting.
2. The Lord Is His Deliverer in Death (16:9-11)
16:9-10. Besides the Messiah’s delight in the Lord in this life, He also affirms His confidence when facing death. First, He declares that God will protect Him, making His flesh … dwell securely, granting Him safety until death (v. 9). But, second, when He does die, the Messiah affirms that the Lord will deliver Him from death. He has confidence in God’s sovereign power that God will not allow His Holy One to undergo decay. Some interpreters say this statement refers only to David (i.e., the expectation of his own resurrection) and later symbolically or typologically is applied in the NT to Jesus. Yet, in light of this entire prayer reflecting the perspective of the Messiah, it is more likely directly messianic. Additionally, Walter C. Kaiser points out that the self-description Your Holy One (lit., “favored one”) is “a messianic term … only surpassed by ‘Servant of the Lord’ and ‘Messiah’ in the OT” (Walter C. Kaiser, Jr., The Old Testament in the New [Chicago: Moody, 1985], 330). Moreover, the expectation here was that the Holy One would not undergo decay, an expectation not true of or possible for David. Therefore, this statement was knowingly intended by David to refer directly and exclusively to the resurrection of the Messiah. The NT confirms this, for this is precisely what Peter said regarding this passage in Ac 2:30-31: “he [i.e., David] was a prophet and … he looked ahead and spoke of the resurrection of the Christ” (see also Ac 13:35-37). Also, Peter pointed out that the terminology employed by David in the psalm indicates that it could not apply to him, for David died and was buried, and his body would naturally have undergone substantial decay. Yet David declared that God’s Holy One would not undergo decay. David understood that it was essential for the Messiah to be raised from the dead first, as the “first fruits of those who are asleep” (1Co 15:20), and that in doing so he would serve as the model and guarantee for those who believe. For what the NT adds to the understanding of Ps 16:10, see the comments on Ac 2:24-32. On Sheol see the comments on Ps 49:14-15.
16:11. Not only would God preserve the Messiah until death and resurrect Him from death, the Lord assured Him of eternal life afterwards. Messiah looked forward confidently to what he knew God would do (not to what He hoped God might do). He stated in no uncertain terms, You will make known to me the path of life. Also, He was certain to experience full joy (lit., “the satisfaction of [all] joys”) in God’s presence. This bliss would be at God’s right hand and would last forever.
Psalm 17: Praying for Protection
This psalm of David (cf. introduction to Ps 3) is described as a Prayer. Four other psalms are designated as prayers: Pss 86 (also attributed to David), 90 (attributed to Moses), 102 (anonymous, though framed by Davidic psalms), and 142 (attributed to David). A comparison of these five psalms bears out certain similarities that serve to reinforce and clarify the content of each psalm individually. Especially prominent in each of these psalms is the combination of three themes: (1) an appeal that God “hear” or “give heed” (v. 1)—or, in the case of Ps 90, to “return” with a compassionate answer to the psalmist’s cry/supplication (17:1; 86:6; 90:13 [where “be sorry for” should be “show compassion on”]; 102:1; 142:6); (2) a description of the affliction, trouble, or distress of the psalmist or the people of Israel collectively (17:9; 86:1; 90:15; 102:2; 142:2); and (3) an appeal to God’s lovingkindess, compassion, and/or grace (17:7; 86:5; 90:14; 102:13; 142:1 [where “make supplication” means lit., “seek grace for myself”]). David knew his own resurrection was dependent upon that of the “Holy One” (16:10), and he expressed confidence that in his own resurrection he would awake to see God (17:15b) (Sailhamer, NIV Compact Bible Commentary, 318).
A. Asking God for an Audience (17:1-6)
17:1-2. David began by humbly asking God to Hear a just cause, O LORD, give heed to my cry, that is, “Favorably answer my prayer” (not presuming that God will do so, for the presence of unconfessed or unrecognized sin on the part of the petitioner will ensure that God does not “hear” his petition; see Is 59:2; Jr 14:12). By saying that his prayer is not from deceitful lips David was not claiming that he was not a sinner (or had not sinned), but rather that he had confessed his sin(s) sincerely, without “a double heart” (see the comment on 12:2), and had humbly received and responded to his heavenly Father’s chastisement for those sins.
17:3-6. His point is emphatically indicated by the three-clause parallelism: You have tried … You have visited … You have tested, each expression employed elsewhere to denote divine chastisement (cf. Ex 32:34; Zch 13:9). As a result of this chastisement, David affirmed that God would find nothing in him that remained of unconfessed sin. There is therefore no apparent reason God should not favorably answer him and protect him from further chastisement.
B. Appealing to God for Protection (17:7-14)
17:7-12. David acknowledges the Lord’s character and power when he asks him to Wondrously show Your lovingkindness (v. 7; cf. 9:1; 5:7 comments). He identifies the Lord as Savior of those who take refuge in Him (v. 7). His request for God to keep me as the apple of the eye (as one protects the pupil of the eye) and hide me in the shadow of Your wings (as a mother bird protects her chicks, v. 8) are familiar biblical metaphors for protection (cf. Dt 32:10; Ru 2:12; 3:9; Pss 36:7; 57:1; 61:4; 63:7; 91:1; Pr 7:2). Although in danger of enemies who surround him (v. 9), David was seeking the Lord’s protection.
17:13-14. David referred to them as “the wicked, Your sword” (not, as in the NASB, with Your sword; there is no preposition in the Hb. text). That is, these enemies were the sword of God’s chastisement. He even saw this difficult circumstance within the hand of the Lord.
C. Affirming God’s Promise (17:15)
17:15. Despite any circumstances, David was confident in the Lord: As for me, I shall behold Your face. David concluded this psalm in characteristic fashion by looking beyond the present life to his guaranteed future state in eternity, a state characterized by perfect righteousness (sedeq). This bookends the psalm with the same term in v. 1, though there the NASB translates sedeq by just cause. He will then behold the face (or “presence”) of God (see Pss 16:11; 142:7). Implicit in this conclusion is the recognition that God may choose not to protect him from further affliction by the wicked, but rather—as in the case of Job—to permit it for David’s further refinement (not necessarily chastisement), and in the end therefore for God’s greater glory.
Psalm 18: A Psalm of Praise for God’s Personal Deliverance
This psalm repeats, with minor variations, David’s psalm in 2Sm 22. For the heading of this Psalm of David, see the comments on the heading of Ps 3. David here is described as the servant of the LORD, a description elsewhere applied to him only in the heading of Ps 36. This description serves to identify David with a select group of others in the Bible who are similarly described. Those individuals include Moses and Joshua, to whom the identical phrase is applied (see Dt 34:5; Jos 24:29), Caleb, Zerubbabel, and Jonah (2Kg 14:25). The Messiah is also called “My servant” (see Nm 14:24; Hg 2:23; Zch 3:8). The heading also indicates that this psalm was spoken by David on the day that the LORD delivered him from the hand of all his enemies and from the hand of Saul. This refers not to the day when Saul died (1Sm 31:6), nor even the day when David was finally enthroned king of all Israel (2Sm 5:3), but at that point much later in his reign after Saul’s death, as well as his many victorious wars with the Philistines and others and after the revolts of Absalom (2Sm 18) and Sheba (2Sm 20).
A. David Affirms His Relationship with the Lord (18:1-29)
1. Affirming One’s Devotion to God as the Deliverer (18:1-3)
18:1-3. David began this psalm by affirming his devotion to God, I love You, O LORD, my strength (v. 1). Then he acknowledges God as his rock, fortress, and deliverer (v. 2).
Identifying God as my rock (cf. comments on 18:46) is a frequent poetic figure for God, indicating His unfailing strength as a refuge and defense (cf. 2Sm 23:3; Pss 19:14; 28:1; 31:2-3; Is 26:4; 30:29). David’s devotion is characterized not by a formal reverence, such as one might show toward a respected yet distant superior, but rather by love—as indicated by his opening words I love You (erhamekha), which is derived from the same root as the Hebrew word for “womb” (rehem), and denotes a deep and emotionally charged sense of personal attachment and commitment (hence the translation elsewhere of rahamim, the plural of rehem, as “mercies” [cf. Ps 145:9]). This expression recalls Dt 6:5: “You shall love the LORD your God with all your heart and with all your soul and with all your might” (cf. Mt 22:36-38). The term horn in the expression horn of my salvation (v. 2) symbolizes strength and victorious power (see Dt 33:17; 1Kg 22:11).
2. David Affirms the Personal Nature of God’s Deliverance (18:4-19)
18:4-6. In this section first-person forms predominate (me and my), with David emphasizing God’s deliverance and love for him personally. By stating that I called … to my God for help; He heard my voice, David was describing God’s favorable response to his petition (cf. comment on 17:1-6).
18:7-15. The phrases and figures of speech in this section highlight the awe-inspiring power of God’s deliverance: e.g., the earth … quaked (v. 7); The LORD also thundered (v. 13; cf. the same phraseology in Am 1:2); lightning flashes in abundance (v. 14). Other phrases highlight God’s speed: He rode upon a cherub (v. 10), hearkening to the imagery of the divine cloud of glory dwelling over the ark, which was crowned with cherubim (see Ps 99:1), and He sped upon the wings of the wind (v. 10). Still others focus on God’s thoroughness: the foundations of the mountains were trembling (v. 7, paralleled in v. 15), and the foundations of the world were laid bare (v. 15; cf. Ex 15:8; Jb 4:9; Ps 106:9; Nah 1:4).
18:16-19. The Lord’s powerful rescue is further described as He delivered me from my strong enemy (v. 17). The basic explanation of God’s actions in David’s defense is He rescued me, because He delighted in me (v. 19).
3. David Affirms the Depth of God’s Interest in the Delivered (18:20-29)
18:20-24. David presents a link between the Lord’s actions and his behavior. The LORD has rewarded me according to my righteousness. David is not claiming sinlessness or perfect righteousness, but presents his devotion to the Lord and his desire to live with integrity as other OT figures have done (e.g., 1Sm 12:3; 2Kg 20:3; Jb 13:23; Pss 17:3-5; 19:14). He affirmed that God is interested not only in the improvement of his outward (i.e., physical-material) life (achieved by His deliverance of David from political-military distress), but also in the improvement of his inner (i.e., spiritual) life. This is emphatically indicated by David’s repeated assertion that the Lord has rewarded (v. 20) and recompensed (v. 24) him according to his righteousness and the cleanness of his hands … in His eyes. By this he meant that God delivered him according to his need for growth in righteousness, which only God could fully perceive and meet. The deliverance may not have come at the time or in the manner David would have preferred, yet in the end, as David affirmed, it was exactly what it should have been to supply David’s needs as aligned with the furtherance of God’s glory.
18:25-29. David presents the Lord’s reciprocal response to man. With the kind You show Yourself kind. Although God’s mercy is not limited to rewarding man’s righteousness, David points out a correlation between obedience and blessing: For You save an afflicted (humble) people, but haughty eyes You abase.
B. David Affirms the Deliverance by the Lord (18:30-50)
1. Affirming the Depth of God’s Interest in the Delivered (18:30-36)
18:30-36. In this section, which mirrors the previous one, David affirmed God’s character, His way is blameless, and the depth of God’s concern for him, He is a shield to all who take refuge in Him. The Lord not only girds him with strength, that is, grants him political-military deliverance (cf. Jb 38:3; 40:7), but He also makes his way blameless, that is, He intervenes to keep him from acting rashly or vindictively (and hence in less than blameless fashion) toward his enemies (see 1Sm 25:26, 32-34). David further affirmed God’s interest in his spiritual well-being by declaring that He has given him the shield of His salvation, which parallels the military-spiritual phraseology in Is 59:17 (cf. Eph 6:16-17). The Hebrew term for salvation (yeshah) is one that often signifies comprehensive deliverance (i.e., both internal-spiritual and ultimately external-physical; cf. David’s use of the term in 2Sm 23:5; 1Ch 16:35; Pss 24:5; 25:5). Not surprisingly, therefore, this term is employed (in verbal form) in the name of David’s seed, the Savior Himself, Jesus (His Hebrew name is Yeshuah, “he saves/will save”; cf. Mt 1:21).
2. Affirming the Personal Nature of God’s Deliverance (18:37-45)
18:37-42. Here David recounts his victory over his enemies. In this section, which mirrors the second section of the “first movement” above (vv. 4-19), David affirmed God’s role in granting him deliverance as manifested in the victories God gave him. He emphasized the power of these victories, You have girded me with strength … You have subdued under me, as well as their speed, I pursued my enemies and overtook them, and their thoroughness, until they were consumed. … I shattered them, so that they were not able to rise. … I beat them fine as the dust before the wind.
18:43-45. David acknowledges God as the source of his victory: You have delivered me … You have placed me as head of the nations.
3. Affirming One’s Devotion to God as the Deliverer (18:46-50)
18:46-50. As in the opening section of this psalm (vv. 1-3), David closed with an affirmation of his love and devotion to God: The LORD lives, and blessed be my rock; and exalted be the God of my salvation. God is the One who delivers him (v. 48; cf. v. 2), both physically and spiritually. The permanence of this deliverance is underscored by David’s characterization of the Deliverer as his rock (v. 46; Hb. sur, as in v. 2, cf. 18:2). This common biblical designation of God signifies a massive rock formation that is humanly impossible to move, such as a cliff, quarry, or the side of a mountain (cf. Ex 33:22; 1Ch 11:15; Jb 18:4; Pss 31:3; 71:3; Is 2:10; 51:1). In loving response to God’s acts of deliverance—and affirming the central motivation for His election of Israel (cf. Gn 12:3; 1Kg 8:43)—David declared (v. 49) that he will give thanks … among the nations (lit., “Gentiles”). By this statement, in view of its citation in Rm 15:9, David meant specifically that he would proclaim among the Gentiles (1) God’s faithfulness in upholding “the promises given to the fathers,” Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob (see Gn 12:1-3; 15:8; 17:7-8), which includes God’s promise to David (see 2Sm 7:8-17), and (2) God’s “mercy”—both of which find their greatest expression in the person and work of Messiah, the Promised One.
Psalm 19: A Meditation on Divine Revelation
For the heading of this Psalm of David see introduction to Ps 3. As in Ps 1, God’s Word is powerful (see 19:7-14) and points the way to salvation. God’s Word also leads one to seek refuge in the Son who brings that salvation (2:12; see the comments introducing Ps 2). In Pss 19 and 20 one finds a similar connection. God’s Word is powerful to save (19:7-14) and leads one to the Anointed (20:6) (Sailhamer, NIV Compact Bible Commentary, 319).
A. The Revelation of God in Creation (19:1-6)
19:1-6. This psalm focuses on the works and word of God. The terms heavens and expanse are synonyms, the joint use of which alludes back to their initial occurrence in Gn 1:7-8, where God created the expanse and called it “heaven.” The point of this and the ensuing verses is that the heavens and all that with which God has filled them, like the entirety of creation, constitute ongoing testimony to the glory of God (v. 2: day to day and night to night) and to the existence of the Creator (cf. Ps 8:3). The created order testifies to the existence of God and His eternal power (i.e., omnipotence), and there is no place where the evidence of creation is not seen. The glory of all that is seen makes known His invisible attributes (see the comments on Rm 1:18-23).
B. The Revelation of God in His Word (19:7-11)
19:7-11. Following the testimony of creation, God’s character, works, and will for humanity are further specified by His Word, which is perfect. The first and foundational part of God’s Word is the law (see the comment on 1:3-4), here described by the various other biblical synonyms including testimony, precepts, commandment, and judgments (“ordinances,” as in Ex 21:1). Through this verbal/written revelation man is instructed in the fear (i.e., worship) of the LORD (cf. 111:10; 2Kg 17:28). Two key biblical concepts of worship and obedience (i.e., “keeping/obeying”), presented at the outset of the Torah, are reiterated here (see the comment on Gn 2:15; cf. also Ec 12:13). God’s words are a guide and a warning for how to live, and in keeping them there is great reward (cf. Ps 1).
C. The Revelation of God in Man (19:12-14)
19:12-14. Whether one’s errors are hidden or committed in open arrogance (presumptuous sins), God brings conviction because nothing is hidden from Him (Dt 29:28; Ec 12:14). David concludes with a request to be kept away from sin and that God not allow it to rule over me. Then he asks the Lord to Let the words of my mouth and the meditation of my heart be acceptable in Your sight. On the meaning of meditation (19:14) see the comment on Ps 1:2; on rock as a divine title see the comment on Ps 18:46.
Psalm 20: Expressing the Assurance of Victory in God
On the heading of this Psalm of David, see the heading of Ps 3. Just as one can find deliverance in God’s Word (19:7-14), one can find deliverance in the Anointed One, the Messiah, whom God will bless and preserve (20:6; Sailhamer, NIV Compact Bible Commentary, 319).
A. The People’s Assurance of Victory (20:1-5)
20:1-5. The thematic focus in this psalm is on victory in God, calling on the LORD/King to answer you/us (on this “framing” technique, known as inclusio, see Introduction: Purpose and Themes). The expression the name of the God of Jacob (v. 1) relates specifically to the association between God’s self-disclosed name (i.e., the Hebrew four-letter name for God, commonly written in English as Yahweh, usually translated “the LORD”) and His provision of deliverance and victory (both physically and spiritually; cf. Ex 3:13-17). It also relates to the various names (i.e., titles, which in the OT are the same as names) applied to God by the beneficiaries of His gracious intervention (cf. Gn 16:13; 22:14; Ps 18:2; Is 9:6; etc.).
B. The King’s Assurance of Victory (20:6-8)
20:6-8. David expresses his confidence, I know that the LORD saves His anointed, referring to God’s anointed king (cf. 1Sm 16:13). David underscored his personal experience—and hence confident assurance—of God’s deliverance, since the verb in the expression I know denotes experiential knowledge (see the comment on Ps 1:6; for parallel phraseology and meaning see Gn 22:12; Ex 18:11; Jdg 17:13). Through God’s deliverance of David, David anticipates the Lord’s deliverance of the future Davidic Messiah. Though His cloud of glory may dwell in the tabernacle, David affirmed that God’s true habitation is His holy heaven (lit., “the heaven of His holiness,” which is distinct from the created “heaven” of Gn 1:6-8; cf. Dt 26:15; 1Kg 8:39; Heb 8:5; 9:24). David contrasted his and his people’s complete reliance on God in military matters to the reliance of some (the Gentiles nations, especially those surrounding Israel, such as the Philistines, Amalekites, Moabites, and Ammonites) on their chariots and horses (i.e., the size and strength of their military). This wording hearkens specifically to God’s command that the king of Israel “not multiply horses” (cf. Dt 17:16).
C. The Collective Assurance of Victory (20:9)
20:9. David concluded by affirming the absolute dependence of God’s people not on their human king, David, but on their true King, God, crying out, Save, O LORD; may the King answer us in the day we call. That the King here refers to God is indicated by (1) the clear parallelism between this statement and the opening statement in v. 1, where the subject is “the LORD”; (2) God’s desire that He Himself be affirmed as Israel’s king (see 1Sm 8:7), a desire shared by David (cf. 1Sm 21:2, in which the “king” is implicitly God, not Saul, since only God “commissioned” David, in 1Sm 13:14); (3) David’s use of us, indicating that he was speaking for himself as well as his people; and (4) the expression we call (lit., “of our calling out”) in the OT is typically directed to God, not man.
Psalm 21: A Meditation on the King Who Trusts in the Lord
On the heading of this Psalm of David, see the comments on the headings to Pss 3 and 4. This psalm (v. 1) picks up where Ps 20:7 left off, describing the king’s trust in the Lord. Another link between Ps 21 and Ps 20 are the ideas of the prayer for God to “grant you your heart’s desire” (20:4) and the praise that God has “given him his heart’s desire” (21:2). David presents a picture of an elevated king, who enjoys God’s presence and eternal blessings (21:6). Moreover, the direct address to the king (v. 9ff.) depicts His coming in fiery judgment. Hence, this is not a presentation of a generic king but the Messiah, promised to David (cf. 2Sm 7:12-17; Sailhamer, NIV Compact Bible Commentary, 319). This depiction of the messianic King introduces the presentation of the suffering Messiah in the psalm that follows (Ps 22).
A. The Blessing of the King Who Trusts in the Lord (21:1-6)
21:1-6. David began by affirming that it is only in God’s strength that a king will (i.e., can) be glad, that is, find true satisfaction in his royal office. And only in His salvation can he truly rejoice, both in this life and the next. This eternal-spiritual aspect of God’s salvation is emphatically affirmed by (1) the reference to blessings (vv. 3, 6), the biblical concept of blessing ultimately entailing the greatest possible qualitative enhancement of life in all its senses (see the comment on Gn 1:22); (2) the reference to God having given (the past tense indicates that the gift is irrevocably given) the king life … forever and ever (v. 4); and (3) the reference to being blessed forever … in God’s presence (v. 6), epitomizing the expectation of the eternal King and the hope that His followers will also experience it in the hereafter (see the comments on Pss 11:7b and 15:5b). His work of splendor and majesty are terms that are elsewhere associated with God’s saving work and priestly ministry (cf. Pss 21:5; 45:3; 96:6; 104:1; 145:5).
B. The Strength of the King Who Trusts in the Lord (21:7-12)
21:7. Because the king trusts in the LORD, therefore the lovingkindness (cf. comment on 5:7) of the Most High will be applied to him, and he will not be shaken, referring to the eternal state in God’s presence (Ps 15:5b).
21:8-12. Now addressing the king directly (Your hand … Your right hand, v. 8), the psalmist anticipates the messianic King coming in judgment. The concept of God’s sovereignty in maintaining His promised concern (chesed) toward His faithful is seen in the king’s judgment of his enemies who the LORD will swallow … up in His wrath. Although the wicked devised a plot, they will not succeed (cf. Is 54:17).
C. The Praise of the King Who Trusts in the Lord (21:13)
21:13. The psalm concludes with praise to God, Be exalted, O LORD. The expression in Your strength (applied to God in Is 12:2) here serves as a bookend (inclusio; see Introduction: Genre) with the same phrase at the beginning of this psalm, and underscores the true and only enduring source of strength of the godly messianic King (cf. 1Sm 2:10).
Psalm 22: A Prophetic Perspective on the Crucifixion of the Messiah
On the heading of this Psalm of David, see the comments on the headings to Pss 3 and 4. The elliptical instruction upon Aijeleth Hashshahar (lit., “Hind/Doe of the Dawn”), though not entirely clear, probably refers to the psalm’s melody. It has also been suggested that it is the name of a musical instrument or an allegorical allusion to the subject of the psalm.
Since David is the author of this psalm, some commentators suggest that he was writing about his own experience of suffering, or about the suffering of the righteous generally. However, this psalm transcends the experiences of David or his contemporaries. David was never brought to the “dust of death” (v. 15), nor were his “hands” and “feet” ever pierced (v. 16). There is no record of his ever having had his “garments” divided or “lots” cast for them (v. 18). Moreover, his suffering did not bring universal righteousness (vv. 27-31). Therefore, Ps 22 is better understood as a messianic psalm, presenting the future suffering of the Messiah, fulfilled in the experience of Jesus—to whom portions of this psalm are directly applied in the NT (in Heb 2:11-12, v. 22 of this psalm is introduced as a direct utterance of Messiah). This application to the Messiah is even evident in the medieval rabbinic compilation of commentaries known as the Yalkut, which identifies the mockery of v. 7 (“all who see me sneer at me; they separate with the lip, they wag the head”) as the sufferings and derision experienced by the Messiah (Yalkut Shimoni on Is 60, paragraph 499).
David, in his last words (2Sm 23:1-5), affirmed that he was a prophet and that his favorite subject in the Psalms was the Messiah (see comments at 2 Sm 23:1-5 and the introduction to Ps 2). Likely David wrote from the perspective of his own significant experience of suffering, but he also referred beyond that to the far greater suffering of the Messiah. As such, the psalm is written in the first person, but expresses the words of Messiah in His greatest suffering. The overall structure of Ps 22 is twofold. It begins with the suffering Messiah’s prayer (vv. 1-21) and follows with the exalted Messiah’s praise (vv. 22-31)
A. The Suffering Messiah’s Prayer (22:1-21)
The first section of the psalm is a lament or prayer. It begins with the suffering Messiah’s questioning of God (vv. 1-10) and is followed by His petition to God (vv. 11-21).
1. Questioning God (22:1-10)
There are two stanzas in this section (vv. 1-5 and 6-10), each using the same pattern of a complaint followed by a statement of confidence.
22:1-5. This psalm begins with a complaint (vv. 1-2). David writes from the perspective of Messiah—or, more precisely, with the Spirit of Messiah (i.e., the Holy Spirit; see Rm 8:9) foretelling “by the mouth of David” (Ac 1:16; 4:25)—precisely the last words He would utter on the cross: My God, My God, why have You forsaken me? (Mt 27:46; Mk 15:34). In the two instances that the NT cites these words, they are given in their original Aramaic as well as in Greek translation (rather than only in Greek translation, like almost all Jesus’ other words recorded in the NT). The reason may be to highlight the special significance of this statement as the culminating expression of His first advent in which He became a sin offering (2Co 5:21).
The question asked regarding God’s forsaking of the Messiah (v. 1) is not literal but rhetorical, for certainly the Messiah would have understood the reason for His own suffering. Moreover, it is only an emotional expression, since God did not in reality abandon the Messiah. Some have suggested that God is “too pure to look upon evil” (Hab 1:13) and therefore He literally abandoned the Messiah when the sin of all the world fell upon Him at His crucifixion and the eternal fellowship of the Father and the Son was broken. This explanation is problematic in that the words in Habakkuk mean that God will not “look with approval” upon sin, not that God cannot look upon evil, else He could not look upon the world or people. Additionally, Messiah did not literally become sinful at the cross, but rather the elliptical phrase in 2Co 5:21 means that God made the sinless one to be “a sin offering,” not literally sinful. The eternal fellowship of the Father and the Son was never broken.
Having expressed a complaint, the suffering Messiah next states His confidence (vv. 3-5). He looked back at the fathers (or ancestors) and affirmed that they trusted in the holy God, who is enthroned upon the praises of Israel (v. 3), and were delivered (vv. 4-5). The reference to the fathers should not be limited only to the patriarchs, but to the ancestors (a valid translation of the Hebrew) of Israel, whose walk of faith is recorded in Scripture (for a similar viewpoint of the “men of old” [Heb 11:2], see Heb 11:3-40).
22:6-10. The suffering Messiah continues His complaint, stating that He had been forsaken by men (vv. 6-8, in contrast to His complaint in vv. 1-2 that He was forsaken by God). He has experienced human reproach … sneer[ing] and derision (cf. Mt 27:38-44).
Having stated a complaint, the suffering Messiah once again gives His confidence. Previously He remembered the past experience of Israel’s fathers (vv. 3-5); now He bases His confidence on His own experience with the Lord (vv. 9-10). He can confidently expect God’s care because God has always cared for Him since His birth.
2. Petitioning God (22:11-21)
There are two stanzas in this petition, both pertaining to seeking God’s presence. The first is in vv. 11-18 and the second in vv. 19-21.
a. Seeking God’s Presence because There Is No One Else to Help (22:11-18)
22:11. The first verse in this section functions as a summary, indicating that while trouble is near, help is far away. Therefore, the suffering Messiah petitions God to be not far from me. What follows is a description of the trouble that is surrounding Him.
22:12-13. In describing His troubles, the suffering Messiah first describes His enemies (vv. 12-13) and then depicts His suffering (vv. 14-18). In describing His enemies, He uses a figure of speech called zoomorphism, ascribing animal qualities to human beings. Hence, those who oppress Him are called bulls (v. 12), who gore or pierce those they attack. Their threats and verbal attacks are compared to a ravening and a roaring lion, circling for the kill.
22:14-18. Having described His enemies, the Messiah next depicts His suffering. His physical pain is great (all my bones are out of joint) as is His fear (my heart is like wax … melted within me, v. 14). His strength is as absent as moisture in a potsherd. In fact, He realizes that He is about to die (You lay me in the dust of death, v. 15).
The culminating statement of this suffering is they pierced my hands and my feet (v. 16), representing one of the most specific predictive references to Messiah’s crucifixion (paralleled only by Zch 12:10). Yet this is one of the most debated passages in the Bible. The debate centers on the key Hebrew word ka-aru, rendered they pierced, though in most (but not all) medieval Hebrew manuscripts this word is written ka-ariy, meaning “like a lion.” The first reading, however, is to be preferred for five reasons. First, it is supported by three of the four ancient translations (LXX, the Peshitta, and the Vulgate; the fourth translation, the Targum to Psalms, was translated in the second century AD by non-Christian Jews). Second, even for Hebrew poetry, the phrase “like a lion” is far too elliptical and makes no sense without a verb—which supporters of this reading are forced to supply (e.g., “like a lion they bite my hands and my feet”). Third, were the symbol of a lion intended, it would have been employed in the plural, not the singular, in order to agree with the plural subject (“evildoers”) in the verse (as in Jr 50:17 and Zph 3:3). Fourth, one of the leading medieval Jewish scribal authorities (Jacob ben Chayyim) himself affirms that the older and better manuscripts read ka-aru (“they pierced”) rather than ka-ariy (“like a lion”). Fifth, the reading ka-aru (“they pierced”) is attested in the earliest manuscript of this psalm (5/6 HevPs) from the Dead Sea Scrolls, which predates the medieval manuscripts by approximately one thousand years. Therefore, the suffering Messiah’s words predict His own death by crucifixion at a time when crucifixion was unknown.
There are other specific predictions here. Notable is the specific use of the verb stare (yir’u, meaning “to look at thoughtfully,” v. 17)—here describing the people’s willful rejection of Messiah. This is the same verb used in Zch 12:10 (the only other specific OT crucifixion prophecy) to indicate the people’s willful acceptance of the pierced Messiah. Additionally, the suffering Messiah predicted that His tormentors would divide [His] garments and cast lots for His clothing (v. 18). This specific prediction was fulfilled by the Roman soldiers who cast lots for Jesus’ robe (cf. Jn 19:23-24).
b. Seeking God’s Presence because Only God Can Help (22:19-21)
The second stanza of the suffering Messiah’s petition is different from the first in that He previously stated there were no others to help, but here He notes that so dire are His circumstances that God alone can help Him.
22:19-21. As above (cf. v. 11), the suffering Messiah petitions God to be near (be not far off, v. 19). The petition then follows a similar pattern as above, but begins with a depiction of His suffering (v. 20) followed by a description of His enemies (v. 21). Only God can deliver Him from death (the sword … the power of the dog). His enemies are again described with zoomorphism (cf. vv. 12-13 above) as a lion, whose teeth would pierce, and as wild oxen (v. 21), whose horns would gore. The certainty of Messiah’s deliverance is underscored in v. 21 by the use of the past (perfect) tense verb, literally, “You have answered me” (as in the NET Bible, also see the comment on Ps 10:16 regarding the prophetic perfect).
B. The Exalted Messiah’s Praise (22:22-31)
There is a dramatic change in tone here from the plaintive cries of the previous verses to the exultant praise that follows. Although there is no specific reference to resurrection, in light of the references to death in the previous verses (“dust of death,” v. 15; “they pierced my hands and my feet,” v. 16), this seems to hint at a miraculous resurrection.
1. Praise before Israel: God Is Not Deaf, He Hears! (22:22-26)
22:22-24. The exalted Messiah promises that He will praise God to my brethren, a reference to the people of Israel. God delivered the Messiah from death and as a response He praises God in … the assembly (v. 22). Besides His own praise, the exalted Messiah calls upon Israel to glorify God with Him (v. 23). The reason is that God has not despised nor abhorred nor hidden His face, but rather He has answered the Messiah’s petition. Thus, when he cried to Him for help, He heard (v. 24).
22:25-26. Recognizing that His exaltation comes from God (v. 25), the exalted Messiah calls all sufferers (the afflicted) to trust God even as He did. Thus, they too will experience deliverance and praise the LORD (v. 26).
2. Praise before the Nations: God Is Not Dead, He Lives! (22:27-31)
22:27-31. There is an expectation of the messianic age here, when the ends of the earth will … turn to the LORD (v. 27), that is, when the Lord will rule over the nations (v. 28). At that time, all will worship the Lord, even the wealthy (v. 29a), the dead (who will be raised, v. 29b), and all posterity (vv. 30-31), who will recognize and serve the living God. These words fulfill the promise made to Abraham that “in your seed all the nations of the earth shall be blessed” (Gn 22:18).
Psalm 23: The Lord as Shepherd of His People
On the heading of this Psalm of David, see the comments on the heading to Ps 3. Here David metaphorically described God as a shepherd—a profession with which David was intimately familiar (see 1Sm 16:11, 19; 17:20). This metaphor of shepherd is frequently applied to God throughout the OT and to the Messiah Jesus in the NT (e.g., Gn 48:15; 49:24; Pss 28:9; 80:1; Ec 12:11; Is 40:11; Ezk 34:12, 23; 37:24; Mt 2:6; 26:31; Jn 10:1-16; Heb 13:20; 1Pt 2:25; 5:4; Rv 7:17). Identifying both the God in the OT and Jesus in the NT by this same title is another intimation of Messiah’s deity.
The Afflicted One of Ps 22 nevertheless has God’s ongoing attention and love, and is ultimately vindicated in that affliction as suggested by Ps 23. The one who is vindicated is the Anointed One (v. 5) who will someday return (not “dwell in,” v. 6) to the house of the Lord forever. In context with Ps 22, Ps 23 is messianic as well (Sailhamer, NIV Compact Bible Commentary, 319).
A. The Shepherd’s Provision of Rest (23:1-3)
23:1-3. This psalm begins with its subject, The LORD … my shepherd, then throughout the psalm describes His qualities and relationship with those under His care. Although speaking in terms of sheep, the actual subject of this psalm is the people of Israel (and by application all who love the Lord). This literary image is used in Ps 95:7 and Ps 100 as well.
David began by describing how God fully provides for the needs of His sheep: (1) I shall not want, because He will supply the needs of those under His care (cf. Ps 34:9; Mt 6:25-34); (2) makes me lie down in green pastures, providing a safe place to rest and eat (cf. Is 14:30; Jr 33:12-13; Zph 3:12-13); (3) leads me beside quiet (or “still”) waters, which literally means “waters of rest,” in which the Hebrew word for “rest” is what is used elsewhere to denote spiritual rest (i.e., salvation, one’s relationship with God, as in Ps 95:11; Heb 4:1-10); (4) He restores my soul; He guides me in the paths of righteousness; that is, under His care my spiritual condition is constantly refreshed by following His instructions (cf. Ps 1; Mt 6:33) for His glory and consistent with His plan (cf. 1Kg 8:41-42; Ezr 20:9, 14, 22; Is 48:8; Jr 14:21). David was not asserting here that God always provides (in this lifetime, at least) for believers’ physical needs, but rather that He will always supply what is necessary for the believer’s spiritual well-being.
David is confident that the Lord will take action for His name’s sake. The name of the Lord is not distinct from Him, nor is it just a title or description; rather, His name is a manifestation of Himself and His character (cf. Ex 3:14-15; 34:6-7); His name is synonymous with Him. Thus, the Scriptures speak of “praising His name” (e.g., Pss 7:17; 18:49), “loving His name” (e.g., 69:36), “trusting in His name” (e.g., 20:7), and so on. Often the Lord is described as taking action “for Your name’s sake” or “for His name’s sake” (e.g., Pss 25:11; 31:3; cf. 1Kg 8:41-42; Jr 14:21; Ezk 20:9, 14, 22) in order to manifest His glory, power, and reputation in relation to Israel or among the nations.
B. The Shepherd’s Provision of Comfort (23:4-5)
23:4-5. That God will not necessarily deliver His sheep from all affliction and distress is underscored by the affirmation that I walk through the valley of the shadow of death (cf. 107:14). The shadow of death was described in the previous psalm, as the suffering Messiah stated that He had been placed in “the dust of death” (22:15). In those difficult circumstances of life, those under His care should not fear any evil because You are with me (cf. 27:1; 118:6). God’s care is described using the image of the shepherd’s tools: the rod (an instrument of authority, the thick wooden pole used to count and protect the sheep, cf. 2:9; 45:6) and the staff (the longer, often curved walking stick used for reaching and support, cf. Ex 21:19; Zch 8:4). God will always be available in such situations to comfort me by His care (cf. Pss 71:21; 86:17; Is 12:1; 40:1; 4:13). There is safety in the presence of the Lord because He is the one who will prepare a table (provide a meal) even in the presence of my enemies. To anoint my head with oil was a symbol of consecration, refreshment, and rejoicing (cf. Pss 45:7; 104:15; 133:2; cf. Ex 28:14; 30:30; 2Sm 16:3). This identifies the individual spoken of here as the Anointed One who had experienced suffering and death in the previous psalm.
C. The Shepherd’s Provision of Confidence and Care (23:6)
23:6. David’s confidence in this future inheritance, guaranteed by God’s unshakable goodness and lovingkindness (cf. 5:7 comments), brings him comfort in this life, regardless of the situation. The fatherly aspect of the relationship between the divine Shepherd and His sheep is underscored by the verb follow (sometimes translated “pursue,” elsewhere used to describe the active pursuit of one army by another; e.g., 1Sm 17:52). Under God’s care, His followers will be constantly pursued or faithfully followed after by His goodness and lovingkindness.
The closing verse has two interesting words in translation. Commentators frequently suggest the meaning here has to do with spending eternity in heaven. However, this idea does not originate in this text. Rather than to dwell (Hb. yashav), the Hebrew should be translated “return” (shuv), so this is likely an expectation of return to the house of the LORD, the usual name for the sanctuary (tabernacle or temple; e.g., Pss 15:1; 26:8; 27:4; 134:1; 135:2), for a lifetime (forever, lit., “for length of days”) of worship and fellowship with God. This anticipates the time when the Anointed One will return to the temple in Jerusalem, a common messianic theme (cf. Zch 9:9). Not surprisingly, the next psalm will take up this theme, celebrating the return of the “King of glory” (cf. Ps 24:9-10) to the temple in Jerusalem.
Psalm 24: The Return of the King of Glory
On the heading of this Psalm of David, see the comments on the heading to Ps 3. This psalm connects with the previous in that Ps 24 describes the return of the King to the house of the Lord and His reception by His people at that time (Sailhamer, NIV Compact Bible Commentary, 320).
A. The Extent of His Dominion (24:1-2)
24:1-2. In the opening statement of praise David affirmed that The earth is the LORD’s, and all it contains (its “fullness”), recalling God’s statement to Moses in Nm 14:21, “all the earth will be filled with the glory of the LORD” (see also Ps 72:19; Is 6:3; 1Co 10:26). The implication of this parallel phraseology is that, in addition to denoting the extent of the Lord’s dominion, the present statement also implies that the fullness (everything within) of that dominion attests to the glory of God (cf. Ps 19). Furthermore, it highlights God as the Creator, for He has founded it upon the seas.
B. The Characteristics of His People (24:3-6)
24:3-5. This section closely parallels the entirety of Ps 15 and provides an excellent example of intertextual interpretation (i.e., juxtaposing parallel passages so as to derive a fuller understanding from both together that may not be evident from either alone). The question, Who may ascend into the hill of the LORD?, the temple mount, corresponds to 15:1. Likewise the response, He who has clean hands, to 15:2-5. This depicts those who will welcome the Messiah, the King of glory, into Jerusalem. For more interpretive specifics see the comments on Ps 15.
24:6. The reference to Jacob specifies those who seek … Your face—i.e., the faithful remnant of Israel (the people), for which Jacob is a poetic description (see Ps 14:7). This is especially appropriate since the patriarch Jacob struggled with God and saw Him “face to face,” and only afterwards was his name changed to “Israel” (see Gn 32:28-30 and the comments there).
C. The Glory of His Reign (24:7-10)
24:7-9. The gates and ancient doors are parallel images of the king entering into Jerusalem, heading to the temple mount. David concluded by emphasizing the Anointed One of the previous psalm (23:5) as the King of glory (a title repeated in vv. 7, 8, 9). The focus is specifically on His military glory, as indicated by his repeated use of the word mighty (the Hb. term gibbor) which, though usually translated mighty, is in fact a noun specifically used to designate warriors characterized by highly distinguished military prowess (e.g., David himself [1Sm 16:18], Goliath [1Sm 17:51], Saul and Jonathan [2Sm 1:19, 25, 27], and David’s inner circle of 30 mighty men [1Ch 11:10]). This is no ordinary warrior—rather He is the divine messianic King, taking His seat in the temple after His military victories at the end of days.
24:10. The point is that God, the LORD of hosts (that is, Lord of the armies of heaven), is presented as the mighty warrior King returning victorious in battle (e.g., 1Sm 17:14). He is the mightiest warrior of all—as indicated both by the miraculous military victories He had already won for Israel (from the exodus [see Ex 15:3] up to David’s day [see 2Sm 5:24]) as well as by what He will one day do in the person of Jesus who will “strike down the nations, and … [tread] the wine press of the fierce wrath of God” (Rv 19:15).
Psalm 25: A Prayer for God’s Protective Care
This Psalm of David (cf. comments on the heading of Ps 3) is parallel to Ps 34 (also attributed to David) in theme (both focus on God’s providence), phraseology (both refer, e.g., to “fearing the Lord” [25:12, 14; 34:7, 9, 11], “taking refuge” in Him [25:20; 34:8], the Lord being “good” [25:7-8; 34:8], God “delivering” His own [25:20; 34:4, 17, 19], “the humble” [25:9; 34:2], “eyes” being “toward” [25:15; 34:15], and a concluding reference to God “redeeming” His people, employing the same specific Hebrew verb), and structure (both are acrostics, following the order of the Hebrew alphabet).
Plainly David is identified as the author of this psalm. However, its placement here reflects the postexilic perspective of the final compiler of the book of Psalms. At that time, a significant theme was that Israel and the nations would come to Jerusalem and be instructed by God (Zch 8:20-23; Is 2:2-4). Hence, this psalm follows the description of the King of glory and includes a prayer that God would “lead me in Your truth and teach me” (25:5). The final verse of the psalm anticipates the great hope of the psalmist, that God would redeem Israel through the coming of the Messiah (v. 22) (Sailhamer, NIV Compact Bible Commentary, 320). Nevertheless, the psalm is a model prayer for believers, teaching how to ask God for one’s needs.
A. Affirm the Relational Basis of the Petition (25:1)
25:1. David’s opening simple statement, To You, O LORD, I lift up my soul, is an idiom used elsewhere to express deep longing, desire, and need (cf. Dt 24:15; Jr 22:27). David did not begin by immediately presenting his need or focusing exclusively (and selfishly) on God’s interest in him, but instead he appealed to God on the basis of His merciful character.
B. Express the Specific Content of the Petition (25:2-21)
25:2-3. David stated his trust in God as the basis for his request for deliverance from his enemies (vv. 2, 19). David is confident that all who wait for You will never be ashamed or disgraced (repeated here and again in v. 20).
25:4-7. Here David prays for guidance to know Your ways … teach me Your paths… lead me in Your truth. The basis of his request is his relationship with the Lord because You are the God of my salvation. David was depending on the Lord’s compassion and lovingkindness (chesed, in vv. 6, 7, 10; cf. 5:7 comments). At the same time, he asked for forgiveness of sins and transgressions. The basis of his request to remember me is God’s character. David’s motivation in making a request of the Lord was For Your goodness’ sake, on the basis of God’s character and for God’s honor.
25:8-9. Beginning with the key idea Good and upright is the LORD, these verses express confidence in God’s faithfulness to instruct sinners in the way (of following the teachings of the Lord).
25:10-11. The Lord leads those who trust in Him (v. 9). Specifically, All the paths of the LORD are lovingkindness and truth; even experiences that might seem like the “valley of the shadow of death” (23:4) are part of His good plan for those who keep His covenant and His testimonies by obeying Him and living according to His word.
25:12-15. Here is a profile of the rewards for the man who fears the LORD (cf. 111:10). The Lord will instruct him in the way he should choose. Instruction comes through the Scriptures (32:8; Pr 9:10). The focus is not material prosperity, but what is fundamentally good (i.e., the best) for man, namely, God Himself and/or the knowledge of Him (see Gn 2:9 and Ps 16:2). In this same way, a righteous man’s descendants will inherit the land, that is, retain their tribal/family inheritance (cf. Pss 37:9, 11, 18, 22, 29, 34; 69:36; Is 60:21); this further anticipates the promise of receiving a place in the future millennial kingdom on earth following the second coming, as directly cited by Messiah (Mt 5:5; see the comments there) from Ps 37:11 (see the comments there).
25:16-21. Here is a request for emotional relief: be gracious for I am lonely and afflicted and the troubles of his heart are enlarged. He requested God to forgive all my sins (cf. vv. 7, 11, 18) and to protect him from his enemies. But he primarily wants the Lord to guard his soul on the basis of his having taken refuge in [Him] (cf. 86:2) and having behaved righteously before God (with integrity and uprightness).
C. Consider the Broader Application of the Petition (25:22)
25:22. David began the psalm with a declaration of trust in God. He concludes with a prayer for the nation of Israel, that God would make His glory known by redeeming (rescuing and protecting) them out of all their troubles. Hence David implored God to redeem Israel, employing a verb that specifically denotes the paying of an outstanding debt, and which elsewhere denotes the work of complete spiritual and physical redemption that only God in His grace can supply (see Ps 49:7-8; Is 1:27; Jr 31:11). This anticipates the ultimate redemption of Israel by the Messiah.
Psalm 26: A Meditation on Personal Integrity
This Psalm of David has a threefold approach and contains parallels to Ps 27 (see the outline for that psalm). Both psalms begin by focusing on God as the foundation (both the establisher and determiner) of the central concept of the respective psalms—one’s integrity in Ps 26, and one’s confidence in Ps 27, and then present God as its goal, and conclude by affirming God as its ongoing enabler and developer. This parallel approach serves to emphasize the relationship between the central theme of this psalm and that of the next. Additionally, the psalmist had confidence that God would redeem him (26:11).
A. Affirming God as the Determiner of One’s Integrity (26:1-2)
26:1-2. David began by entrusting himself entirely to God’s perfect justice. He implores God to vindicate him, to take account of David’s moral integrity and judge him on that basis. David recognized his integrity was less than perfect by his use of the phrase my integrity, in which the possessive pronoun indicates his adherence to integrity as he understood it, yet which was still not unadulterated by sin; David is not claiming perfection but his best intentions to follow the Lord without wavering. God would examine (as in a court of law) and try (as precious metals are tried for the quality of the ore) not only his actions, but his mind (seat of knowledge/understanding) and heart (seat of emotions/affections and the active inner person).
B. Affirming God as the Goal of One’s Integrity (26:3-10)
26:3-7. David sought to order his life by the lovingkindness (God’s loyal love) of the Lord and referred to his having walked (i.e., “lived,” cf. v. 11) in God’s truth. Moreover, he does not sit with deceitful (lit., “without spiritual worth”; see also v. 5b) men. He never descended to the point of “sitting” (i.e., identifying wholeheartedly) with them (on these concepts/verbs see the comment on Ps 1:1). The goal of his lifelong endeavor to walk in integrity and truth was not to promote his own merit or worth, but to express thanksgiving for what God had done (v. 7), namely, His wonders of deliverance both personally for David and for His people throughout history (cf. 9:1).
26:8-10. David proclaims I love the habitation of Your house, the temple of God, the place where Your glory dwells (Ex 24:16; 33:22; 40:35; 1Kg 8:11). He requests deliverance from men of bloodshed and wicked schemers so that he can continually “stand … in the congregations” and “bless the LORD” (v. 12).
C. Affirming God as the Enabler of One’s Integrity (26:11-12)
26:11-12. While recognizing his imperfection and failings, David, rather than succumbing to despair, determined to continue to walk in my integrity and appealed to God’s mercy to redeem me, implying forgiveness, not requiting the full penalty that his sins merited (cf. Ezr 9:13), and asks God to be gracious to me (grant him the help he does not merit). Thus, he will be able to continue his attempt to walk in [his] integrity. In this respect it is important that he spend time in the congregations of the faithful (as opposed to “the assembly of evildoers” in v. 5) praising God with those who were of the same mind as he, who affirmed their need for God’s mercy and grace and would therefore encourage him along in his walk—no doubt often meeting at the tabernacle to do so (cf. v. 8).
Psalm 27: A Meditation on Personal Confidence
This Psalm of David mirrors the expository structure of Ps 26 (see the introductory comments there). David once again alludes to the theme broached in 23:6 in which he anticipated being able to live in the house of the Lord with the Anointed One (see 27:4) (Sailhamer, NIV Compact Bible Commentary, 320–21).
A. Affirming God as the Basis of One’s Confidence (27:1-3)
27:1-3. David’s confidence was based on the LORD (rather than man or a group of men) who was his light and … salvation. The word light here, as elsewhere in the OT, is a metaphor for comprehensive salvation, spiritual and physical, both present and eternal. This metaphor of God as light also includes the concept of God illumining David’s darkness (cf. 2Sm 22:29) and directing his life toward obedience to the Lord (e.g., Pss 18:28; 119:105). Furthermore salvation encompasses not just deliverance from enemies, but more significantly spiritual redemption as well (e.g., Pss 3:8; 9:14; 13:5; 18:2, 46; 27:9). David’s dependence on God as the defense of [his] life is further emphasized by his specific use of the two verbs fear and dread (v. 1). This recalls the uses of both verbs when God urged the Israelites to take confidence that they would succeed in possessing the land not because of any ability on their part, but because God Himself will “put the dread and fear” of them “upon the peoples everywhere” (cf. Dt 2:25; Est 8:17). No matter what happens (enemies, a host, or war), he shall be confident.
B. Affirming God as the Goal of One’s Confidence (27:4-6)
27:4-6. David has one request: that I may dwell in the house of the LORD all the days of my life. His request is for never-ending fellowship with the Lord by worship in the temple. This is an allusion within the Psalms to 23:6. Just as the Anointed One anticipated returning to God’s house, so the psalmist looks forward to that time as well. David wanted greater intimacy with the Lord to behold the beauty of the LORD and offer … sacrifices and sing praises to the LORD. The verb to meditate (v. 4) refers to giving careful, close, and absorbed attention and consideration to something, in this case the Lord and His Word (cf. 77:12; 119:15, 48; Lv 13:36; 27:33; Pr 20:25; Ezk 34:11; 39:14).
C. Affirming God as the Developer of One’s Confidence (27:7-14)
27:7-10. David seeks God’s answer (Hear, O LORD) by pointing out his obedience to God’s command to seek My face. The face of God is a key word in this section, appearing three times (vv. 8-9); to seek His face indicates a determination for intimate fellowship with the Lord. On the basis of that behavior David again points to the God of my salvation (cf. 27:1). He uses the extreme example of rescue from abandonment, For (better translated “if”) my father and my mother have forsaken me, but (better translated “then”) the LORD will take me up.
27:11-14. To be taught the way of the Lord will lead me in a level path, a phrase associated with walking righteously (cf. 26:12; 143:10; Is 26:7). Just as God taught him, so too might he instruct and encourage others to be strong and take courage (v. 14; cf. Dt 31:7; Jos 1:7). To wait for the LORD means to depend on Him; it does not indicate passivity or inaction, but rather trust and confident anticipation that He will take action (e.g., Pss 25:3, 5, 21; 37:7, 9, 34; 59:9; 62:5; cf. Gn 48:18).
Psalm 28: A Paradigm of Appeal for the Demonstration of God’s Love
On the heading of this Psalm of David, see the comments on the heading to Ps 3. Though a cursory reading might seem to suggest that his appeal for help is based on his own merit, a closer reading of how key phrases are used elsewhere in the OT reveals instead that his help is based on God’s mercy, grace, and covenant faithfulness—in short, on His love as it is expressed in His covenant promises (see 2Sm 7). In its overall structure this psalm parallels God’s own description in Mal 1:2-5 of the three ways in which His love for Israel is demonstrated (1) in His accomplished gift of unmerited intimacy (Ps 28:1-2; Mal 1:2), (2) in His ongoing judgment of their enemies (Ps 28:3-5; Mal 1:3-4), and (3) in His future restoration and blessing of the nation (Ps 28:6-9; Mal 1:5).
A. As Demonstrated in His Unmerited Attention to the Beloved’s Cry (28:1-3)
28:1-3. Rather than hold back his distress and anguish, David poured it out fully: To You, O LORD I call, not to anyone else (see the comments on Ps 142:1-6). He identified God as his rock (cf. 18:2 comments). David did not demand that God hear (meet his need) his cry … for help as if he merited such a hearing because of his righteousness. Instead he requested that God hear him on the basis of His mercy and grace—even though David did not merit God’s positive response. This is indicated by David’s admission of the real possibility that God might choose to be deaf and silent to his appeal (v. 1) as well as that He might drag David away with the wicked (signifying judgment, not chastisement).
The logical implication of this is that David is also wicked, for the Lord would never “sweep away the righteous with the wicked” (Gn 18:23; see the comments on David’s admission of wickedness in Pss 7:1-5 and 13:1-2). Also the Hebrew word usually translated supplications (tahanunim) in v. 2 (and again in v. 6) signifies “pleas for grace” (from the Hb. hen, “grace”), implying the granting to David of what he did not deserve. Yet, that David could appeal to God with the hope of being shown grace indicates a preexisting relationship (see the comments on Pss 6:1-5; 23:6; 51).
B. As Demonstrated in His Ongoing Judgment of the Beloved’s Enemies (28:4-5)
28:4-5. David further asks for judgment of his enemies, Requite them according to their work. Just as the love of a parent will prompt him to fight against those who seek to injure his child, so too David implored God to demonstrate His love by “requiting” (judging, both militarily and spiritually) his enemies. Those enemies were the Gentile nations around Israel, as indicated by (1) David’s description of them as those who do not regard [lit., “discern”] the works of the LORD nor the deeds of His hands (v. 5a), employing the same phraseology used to describe these nations in Dt 32:27, and (2) his expectation that the Lord will tear them down and not build them up (v. 5b), which parallels the phraseology of God’s declaration concerning Edom in (Mal 1:4). David’s reason for imploring God to requite his and Israel’s enemies is not that they are his and Israel’s enemies as such (or even that they are more depraved than the Israelites), but that, as reflected by their opposition to Israel, they are opposed to the person, standards, and work of God Himself (cf. Ps 83).
C. As Demonstrated in His Final Salvation of the Beloved’s People (28:6-9)
28:6-9. As a final demonstration of God’s love, David implored God to save Your people, the people of Israel, who are identified as His inheritance. Of all the nations and people groups on the earth, the people of Israel alone are identified as the inheritance of the Lord, indicating His unique relationship with them. The people of Israel are frequently identified as God’s inheritance (Dt 9:29; 32:9; Pss 33:12; 74:2; Is 63:17; Jr 10:16; 51:19). That this (v. 9) is intended as a reference to complete (material and spiritual) blessing is seen in the parallel reference to God as their shepherd who will carry them forever (cf. comments on Ps 23; Mal 1:5).
Psalm 29: A Meditation on God’s Awe-Inspiring Power
On the heading of this Psalm of David, see the comments on the heading to Ps 3. According to early Jewish tradition, this psalm, which concerns God’s transcendent power and its ultimate application to the full restoration of His people, was recited by the Levites on the Feast of Booths (cf. Lv 23:33-44; Babylonian Talmud, Sukka 55a). This festival likewise commemorates God’s power and ability to supply His people’s needs in the desert wandering as well as His ultimate application of that power to fully restore Israel and establish His tabernacle over all creation (see Zch 14:16-18; Col 2:16-17; Rv 21:3; and see the comment on Ps 15:1). The theme of God’s strength in both 28:7 and 29:1, 11 suggests that Ps 29 may be the very song David wrote and sang in response to that strength (Sailhamer, NIV Compact Bible Commentary, 321).
A. The Unequivocal Ascription of God’s Power (29:1-2)
29:1-2. This psalm is a call to praise God: Ascribe to the LORD (repeated 3 times for emphasis) … glory and strength … glory due to His name. David affirmed the absolute sovereignty and preeminence of God, in both glory and strength, not just over all men but also over all other gods. This is indicated by the phrase sons of the mighty (v. 1a), better translated “sons of gods.” The term mighty (elim), which occurs only three times elsewhere (Ex 15:11; Ps 89:6; Dn 11:36), refers to pagan gods (see Ex 15:11). Scripture denies the existence of such divine beings (that is, there is no such supernatural being as “Dagon” or “Baal”), but sometimes posits them for the sake of the discussion and in dialogue with pagan practices (e.g., Gn 31:19; 35:2; Ex 23:32; Nm 33:4; Dt 6:14; Jos 24:16; Ru 1:15). The word “sons” in this expression does not denote descendancy but rather association or characterization (cf., e.g., 1Sm 25:17; Pr 31:5; Mk 3:17), the reference being here to anything (e.g., idols or concepts) associated with or characterized by pagan deities. The call is for even those who have followed paganism to acknowledge the Lord, and worship the LORD in holy array, in a proper manner.
B. The Universal Attestation of God’s Power (29:3-9)
29:3-9. These verses extol the manifestation of God’s glory and power in creation, (similar to Ps 19:1-6)—though in this case these verses allude to the deliverance, provision, and guidance of His fledgling people Israel at the exodus. Hence God’s voice (or “sound,” as the word is often translated) “thundering” upon the waters (v. 3) alludes to His deliverance of Israel from Pharaoh’s army. In the exodus, He “rebuked the Red Sea and it dried up” (Ps 106:9; cf. Ex 15:8-10; Ps 114:3-5; Nah 1:4). His voice also is described as making Lebanon (i.e., the mountains of Lebanon) skip like a calf and Sirion (the Sidonian name of Mount Hermon; Dt 3:9) skip like a young wild ox (v. 6). This parallels the poetic depiction of creation’s reaction to God’s power revealed at the exodus in Ps 114:4-6. The reference to His voice hewing out flames of fire parallels the description of the seventh plague (fiery brimstone) in Ps 105:32: “He gave them … flaming fire in their land” (cf. Ex 9:23). And the reference to God “shaking” the wilderness of Kadesh (v. 8) alludes to God’s chastising of the exodus generation at Kadesh (Nm 14:1-45; 20:1-13). On everything in His temple saying Glory! (v. 9), see Is 6:1-4 (where even “the foundations of the thresholds” are said to respond to God’s glorious presence).
C. The Eternal Application of God’s Power (29:10-11)
29:10-11. David concluded by affirming God’s glory and sovereign power: The LORD sits as King. He reigned even before the flood, the first historical event of divine deliverance and judgment. That the LORD sat (i.e., exercised full authority and control as judges in biblical times might; Ex 18:13; Ru 4:1; 1Kg 2:12; Jr 26:10) at that worldwide event (see the comments on Gn 6:13-20) assures that He has sat as King over all human affairs ever since then, and that God will continue to sit over all Creation as King forever. As such, He is certainly able to control all matters relating to the welfare of His people, ultimately fulfilling all He promised them by blessing His people—both the remnant of ethnic Israel and those joined to them by faith (cf. 28:6-9)—with peace (shalom, signifying “completeness” and the presence of restful well-being in every sense, both physically, circumstantially, and spiritually; cf. 2Sm 7:11; Pss 28:9; 95:11).
Psalm 30: Thanksgiving and Dedication after Discipline
On the heading of this Psalm of David, see the comments on the heading to Ps 3.