Original Meaning
THE SHIFT FROM individual sayings to the address of a teacher in 22:17 tells us that we have entered a new section of the book, one that spans 22:17–24:22. We set this section apart here because (1) there is a new title, “the sayings of the wise” (22:17); (2) the style returns to the instruction-like writing we encountered in chapters 1–9; and (3) a generation of biblical scholarship has drawn comparisons between 22:17–23:11 and the Egyptian Instruction of Amenemope, noting similarities and differences in form and content.
(1) The new title, “the sayings [words] of the wise,” not only marks the transition to a new section but also to the final third of the book.1 Of the seven superscriptions in Proverbs (1:1; 10:1; 22:17; 24:23; 25:1; 30:1; 31:1), all but the first two make mention of sages other than Solomon. Perhaps we have here a sign that the final third of the book preserves an ongoing tradition of wisdom that was cultivated and passed on by “the wise,” “the men of Hezekiah” (25:1), Agur (30:1), and Lemuel (31:1). This final third of the book is similar to what has gone before, yet distinct in form and content (e.g., in its insertion of riddles and numerical sayings).
(2) In some ways, the style of these “words of the wise” leaves readers with the impression that we are starting over again, for these instruction-like sayings are followed by a collection of individual proverbs (25:1–29:27), just as we saw in the first two-thirds of the book (1:1–9:18, followed by 10:1–22:16). For this reason readers approach the final third of the book as a recapitulation of what has gone before, but also as a review that adds new developments to the familiar content.
Mention of the “sayings . . . of the wise” in the prologue (1:6) may give us a clue that we are at a new level of teaching that takes what has been learned in the first two rounds and puts it to use. For example, readers find new attention to the matter of table manners and excess eating and drinking (23:1–35), perhaps meant to prepare a young sage for service as a teacher, ambassador, and advisor to rulers. If earlier chapters stressed the importance of gaining wisdom and learning to master its literary forms, these chapters review all that while adding new and more challenging material.
(3) Comparison with the Egyptian Instruction of Amenemope also draws our attention to similarities and differences with what has already been taught in Proverbs. The manuscript of this Egyptian instruction was discovered in the late nineteenth century, but when it was published in 1923, similarities with this section of Proverbs led some scholars to suggest direct influence. For example, comparison of Proverbs 22:17–18 with Amenemope 3:9–162 shows the use of “your ears,” “hear,” “heart,” “beneficial/pleasant,” “in your belly,” and “on your tongue/lips.”3
Moreover, because Amenemope was written in thirty chapters, biblical scholars began to read the difficult šilšom (“three days ago”) as “thirty,” even though the Hebrew text does not include the word for “sayings” (22:20) and no attempt to delineate those thirty sayings has won wide acceptance.4 Even as we remember that Solomon’s wisdom was compared with the wisdom of the east and of Egypt (1 Kings 4:30), we also observe significant differences between the Hebrew and Egyptian texts; similarities in content end at 23:11. Moreover, only thirty-two of the eighty-six verses show close relationship; there is more in the “sayings of the wise” than is to be found in Amenemope. Finally, points of contact with Amenemope run throughout Proverbs and are not limited to these words of the wise. For example, both texts speak of poverty and piety as better than wealth with conflict (e.g., 15:16–17 and Amen. 9:5ff.).5
In assessing any possible influence from Amenemope, we remember that two dynamics are at work. (1) The points of connection between Proverbs and Amenemope are also common to the larger body of ancient Near Eastern wisdom literature, so one can make too much of the parallels. (2) We must acknowledge that there is a greater concentration of these points of contact in Amenemope than in other examples of ancient Near Eastern wisdom literature, even though the themes are often treated differently in each work.6 Thus, there appears to be some influence, indicating that the composer, if not also the audience, knew of the Egyptian work, but direct influence and borrowing is not as certain as many scholars claim. (3) The most important point of comparison is the purpose each was written to serve; if Amenemope was written as an instructional guide for those preparing for public service, we can then look for a similar purpose in the “sayings of the wise.”7
A good number of these instructions are phrased as admonitions (“Do not”; cf. 3:7–12, 27–31), pointing out behaviors and associations that should be avoided. Many also come in paired verses, one for the admonition, one for the motivation. While we make no attempt to discern thirty sayings, the use of the admonition does offer some clues about structure and the mirrored repetition of themes in the second half of chapter 22.
Pay Attention, Give Sound Answers to One Who Sends (22:17–21)
Sayings of Counsel and Knowledge (22:22–29)
Do not exploit the poor (22:22–23)
Do not make friends with the hothead (22:24–25)
Do not strike hands in pledge (22:26–27)
Do not move the boundary stone (22:28)
The skilled one will serve kings (22:29)
While the opening and closing sayings speak to matters of service (22:17–21, 29), the admonitions in between warn against exploitation of innocent neighbors (22:22–23, 28) and bad associations (22:24–25, 26–27).
Pay Attention, Give Sound Answers to One Who Sends (22:17–21)
22:17. THE INSTRUCTION style resumes in 22:17, although the address, “My son,” will not appear until 23:15. A prologue of sorts includes a call to attention and motivations for learning, much like the prologue of 1:1–7, yet this introduction is not as comprehensive as the preview to the entire book. Three imperatives make up the charge: “pay attention,” “listen” (lit., “turn your ear and hear”), and “apply your heart” (cf. 2:1–2), linking hearing with the seat of human intention and purpose. “Sayings of the wise” (cf. 1:6) is parallel with “what I teach” (lit., “my knowledge”), identifying this teacher as one of the wise or someone who teaches using words.
22:18. The motivation in verse 18 envisions a “pleasing” (naʿim; cf. 23:8; 24:4) outcome; sound teachings stored in the heart8 will find expression in wise speech that blesses and teaches others. “All of them ready on your lips” assumes that one brings out of the storehouse of teaching a synthesis, wisdom that is perhaps greater than the sum of the parts (cf. Matt. 13:52).
22:19. Verse 19 warns that knowledge and wisdom are necessary for successful living, but they are not the source of one’s confidence; teaching is to inspire trust in Yahweh, integrating intellectual study and faith.9 The second line of verse 19 repeats the second person “you,” and the emphatic concluding words, “even you,” surprise the reader; they seem to say, “Yes, I’m talking to you, not somebody else. Trust in the LORD.”
22:20. The famous translation issue of verse 20 (see comments above) should not obscure the purpose of the verse, namely, to introduce these “written” sayings of counsel and knowledge. For the first time in Proverbs, oral teaching has given way to teaching by means of text. “Counsel” here is a plural noun, the means by which “knowledge” is transferred from teacher to learner.
22:21. Verse 21 sets out a secondary goal for teaching these “true and reliable words,”10 that is, to show how one might return reliable words in answer to one who sends (cf. 18:13; 24:26). This reference to “him who sent you” brings to mind earlier sayings about messengers, both bad (10:26) and “trustworthy” (13:17, root ʾmt; cf. 25:13; 26:6, where the topic appears again). Amenemope also speaks of the messenger (Amen. 1:5–6). Thus, we conclude that one function of these teachings is to prepare a young man for some sort of diplomatic service. One schooled in wisdom must be prepared to give an answer when representing a king or official, knowing what to say not only in terms of content but also in terms of style and speaking with eloquence that “is pleasing” (22:18). The two purposes (trust in Yahweh and skill in answering for [or to] a king or official) are complementary, not mutually exclusive. Sages who served as courtiers answered to two authorities, as did Joseph, who advised Pharaoh but ultimately served Yahweh.
Sayings of Counsel and Knowledge (22:22–29)
22:22–23. THE “SAYINGS of counsel and knowledge” (cf. 22:20) in 22:22–29 are a series of admonitions, each paired with a reason or motivation; each begins with the Hebrew negative ʾal (“do not”). Verse 22 continues the emphasis on fair treatment of the poor that was so prominent in 22:1–16 and throughout the sayings (10:15; 14:31; 17:5; 19:4, 17; 21:13). The word “exploit” is translated “rob” (gzl, 4:16; 28:24) in its other contexts, suggesting that exploitation is one way to take what belongs to another.
The syntax of “because they are poor” has puzzled translators. While the poverty of these people is reason enough to treat them kindly, most likely the phrase chides the exploiters who see their powerless prey as easy pickings; they crush the poor in court (lit., “at the gate,” where legal matters were decided). Ironically, those who try to use the system to do wrong will find out that they are called to an even higher court. The double use of rib in “take up their case” (22:23; lit., “strive a striving”; cf. 23:11) echoes the voice of the prophets, who portray Yahweh as judge, prosecutor, and executor (Isa. 1:17; 3:13; 19:20; 41:21; Jer. 2:9; 25:31; Hos. 4:1; Mic. 6:2; 7:9).
22:24–27. The matched sections of verses 24–25 and 26–27 present familiar warnings about avoiding certain persons and practices, juxtaposing new motivations. A number of the proverbs warned against a “hot-tempered man” (cf. 15:18; 19:19), but describing this person’s influence as a snare is new, reminding the reader of the invitation to violence in 1:10–19. The “pledge” (22:26) was compared with a trap in 6:1–5 (cf. 11:15; 17:18; 20:16 = 27:13), but here the teacher warns against repossession. Here too, taking a pledge is a form of bad association.11 Just as one stands to lose in associating with a hothead, so one can lose all in a bad pledge; having your “bed [snatched] from under you” is like our losing the “shirt off your back.” Here is the clearest reason for the warning, as if the teacher saying, “Your creditors will show the same ‘mercy’ that so many show to the poor, for you will become one of the poor yourself.”
22:28. The prohibition here against moving the boundary stone stands alone, with no accompanying motivation or reason (a reason is given in the similar 23:10). The personal pronoun emphasizing “your forefathers” implies that the person on the other side of the property line is kin. The only other reference to the boundary marker in Proverbs names the widow (15:25; cf. Deut. 19:14). To move that marker for financial gain is therefore to defraud those most vulnerable. If Proverbs 22:24–25 and 26–27 are about self-protection, the surrounding verses (22:23 and 28) are directed toward protecting and caring for the powerless of society.
22:29. A three-line saying in verse 29 interrupts the series of prohibitions with a rhetorical question and answer that holds up excellence and pride in work. Mind your own business, it seems to say, neither cheating the poor or getting mixed up in bad company. Do your work well and live well, and you will have the king as your employer, a coveted association (cf. 23:1). If earlier proverbs about the king stressed his responsibilities for executing justice and his capacities for discerning evil intention (22:8), these instructions give advice about working for such a person. One advances through competence and integrity, not cunning or careerism.
Bridging Contexts
WE BEGIN WITH two observations about structure. (1) Similar sayings about boundary markers in 22:28 and 23:10 possibly define the boundaries of a larger section (see comments on ch. 23). (2) Another possible structure is a mirror repetition of themes in verses 17–29: service (22:17–21, 29), exploitation by means of the legal system (22:22–23, 28), and bad associations (22:24–25, 26–27). We may take each of the three themes in turn.
Service. The sayings at the beginning and end of this small section urge the learner to “pay attention,” either by listening (22:17) or by looking (22:29). In each case, the goal is to learn those attitudes and practices that will prepare one for effective service to one who sends (22:21), perhaps the king himself (22:29). The first of the sayings highlights the “sayings of the wise,” the teachings that the learner stores in the inner parts so they are ready to be spoken on the lips (22:18). As we have seen, these teachings foster trust in Yahweh as well as the capacity to return reliable words to the one who sends (22:19–21). Perhaps this facility with wise words is the skilled work of verse 29.12
In any case, the teacher makes it clear that learning and storing these teachings prepares one for service that involves the proper use of words, making sure they are “reliable” words (twice in the Heb. of 22:21). Words such as these not only speak the truth, they do so in the spirit of faithfulness—faithful to what serves the interests of the employer and the common good (assuming that they are not different!).
In bringing these principles into our own day, we must keep in mind that learning wisdom prepares us to speak wisely, to speak in ways that are faithful to those we serve—both those we work for and those for whom we have responsibility. It may be that like the sages of old, we are called upon to teach, to give advice and counsel, or simply to represent the concerns of another. In short, the sages of old were responsible both for maintaining and teaching the words of the wise and for putting them to work in daily practice of advising and representing.
Today, it is hard to find the occupation that does not require this aspect of wise speaking. Lawyers, physicians, and educators have this written into their job descriptions, but who of us does not need these skills for knowing how to find the best ways to get the job done and preserve good relationships at the same time? A secretary I know works for an office of student services at a nearby college. She is charged with instructing, advising, and serving the concerns of the constituency that includes students and potential employers who may hire them.
Exploitation. Two admonitions against exploiting the poor and moving the boundary stone both warn against using systems that were set up to protect property in order to steal it. The means used to take advantage of the poor and needy are not stated in 22:22, only that it is done “at the gate,” where disputes should be settled fairly and not on the basis of special favors or bribes. Likewise, to move a boundary stone is to acquire property illegitimately (22:28); just as the community met at the gate to ensure fair dealing, so the community of ancestors set up the boundaries to ensure that land stayed with its owners. Yahweh takes up the case of the poor (22:23), so one may assume he too looks after boundary disputes.
Servants of the royal court had access to power and influence that could easily be abused for private gain, just as in public service today. These two admonitions assume that one who has learned from these teachings will do more than stay clear of such abuses, for they will also be watchful to stand against them. This principle links with the conclusion of the individual sayings in 22:16, that those who oppress the poor to increase wealth or give of that wealth to the rich for power and influence will come to ruin.
James reminds his readers how easy it is to fall into the trap of favoring the rich over the poor, adding that the rich exploit the poor and use their influence to drag them into court (James 2:1–9). Whatever our venue of service and employment, we are called to serve the neediest and weakest persons, not only refusing to abuse them but also doing all we can to protect them from those who would. This principle also applies to the way we treat others at our jobs. A well-known story tells of the exam that medical interns were given in which they had to write the name of one of the hospital’s janitors. Likewise, the principle applies to corporations and governments. In our world of larger and larger circles of business and professional relationships, it is not easy to spot neglect and abuse, but even the commitment to become aware of such issues is a step forward.
Bad associations. The two admonitions that form the center of this mirror structure warn against bad associations with hotheads and borrowers (22:24–27). The danger of the first is taking on that person’s quick-tempered ways and later paying the price for them. The danger of the second is taking on responsibility for another’s debts and possibly paying that price. In both, the caution is well taken that choosing associates means choosing their behaviors and attitudes, but also the consequences that result from them.
Previous proverbs warned against the dangers of hot-tempered people, especially getting caught in their wreckage: “A hot-tempered man must pay the penalty; if you rescue him, you will have to do it again” (19:19). If we were to articulate the positive teaching that is implied, it is like another proverb: “He who walks with the wise grows wise, but a companion of fools suffers harm” (13:20). Parents who keep watch on their kids’ choice of companions are not only looking out for their immediate welfare, they are teaching them how to make such choices in the future, especially if they provide good models.
The point of these warnings against pledges cannot be that we are not to loan or give to needy neighbors. Rather, the sages suggest that we not become needy by pledging foolishly. Said another way, if you don’t have the means to loan, you don’t have the means to pledge. Pledge as though you were giving over what you have, and don’t make promises you don’t intend to keep. Become a judge of character, because you are pledging on the assumption that the person will pay back and not leave you in the lurch. Moses taught that a loan to the needy should be made without interest. If a coat is taken in pledge, it should be given back at night when it gets cold; perhaps this is an argument against taking a pledge from the poor at all (Ex. 22:25–26; cf. Deut. 24:10–13).
Jesus even advised his followers, in the context of not resisting evil, turning the other cheek, and walking the second mile: “Give to the one who asks you, and do not turn away from the one who wants to borrow from you” (Matt. 5:42; cf. Luke 6:30). Reading these words with the sages’ teaching in mind, we see that Jesus encouraged making loans, even if a person had the potential to go bust. “If you lend to those from whom you expect repayment, what credit is that to you? Even ‘sinners’ lend to ‘sinners’ expecting to be repaid in full. But love your enemies, do good to them, and lend to them without expecting to get anything back” (Luke 6:34–35).
If this is the good we should do our enemies, how should we treat our poor neighbor? “Do not be hardhearted or tightfisted toward your poor brother. Rather, be openhanded and freely lend him whatever he needs” (Deut. 15:7–8; cf. Ps. 37:26; Prov. 19:17). The warning against foolish pledges should be set in the biblical context that loans are to be made on the basis of care, not on the potential for repayment. The point of the warning is akin to the warning against close friendship with the hothead; in seeking to apply these principles in our day, let us remember that choosing companions is equal to choosing their ways and their potential problems.
Contemporary Significance
IN SUM, THIS first section of the “sayings of the wise” extends the themes of previous chapters by calling learners to faithful and diligent service, a service that rejects greedy and impetuous ways. The call comes with the reminder that this service not only pleases employers and neighbors but also Yahweh, who will take up the case of the poor and all who are abused. We have tried to understand what it means to “give sound answers” (lit., “return reliable words”), concluding that it means keeping one’s speech in line with the content and tone of wisdom teachings. Such speaking can take the forms of teaching, advising, and even advocating for fair treatment of others. Today, the need is as great as ever for “giving sound answers” to the problems that vex our culture and our churches. In short, the words “of the wise” are needed more than ever before, and they ought to come not only from pulpits and Christian education forums but also from Christians who speak eloquently and persuasively in the public square.
Addressing the age. Two dimensions of the issue stand side by side. (1) The emphasis on a tradition that is passed on from one generation to the next speaks of mastery that comes from apprenticeship, learning the venerable texts while internalizing and then reproducing their ideals of character. (2) The “sound answer,” or return of reliable words, suggests that the teaching applies the principles that have stood the test of time to contemporary questions and concerns. While the accent in Proverbs falls on the first emphasis, we dare not ignore the need to connect the wisdom of the ages with contemporary issues. Christian education classes can invite those who explore the fields of science, ethics, and law to work with nonprofessionals toward the integration of faith and learning. Clergy and church leaders can use their training in theology to pose questions and work together toward answers.13
Stated more plainly, it is necessary and important to offer classes in Bible and spiritual life, but it is just as important to tackle the hard questions of our time. Such discussions can bring together clergy who are the custodians of the Christian tradition with those scholars and scientists who have, over the course of time, inherited the sage’s role of the curious observer. In other words, the twofold role of the sage as tradition-bearer and practitioner seems to have been divided in our own day between the clergy/theological custodians and the professionals, who observe, explore, and seek to generate new knowledge.14
Perhaps the church should sponsor conversations in the spirit of a public forum that offers insight and help for the issues of the day. If so, then the church as a body might fulfil the role of the fledgling sage, passing both the “reliable words” of tradition and answering with “reliable words” that respond to ever-changing circumstances. For example, few churches were interested in the beliefs of Islam until the attacks of September 11, 2001, which left people asking why so many Muslims were so angry. Since then, experts in Islamic studies have been busy speaking to churches and community groups. In the same way developments in medical technology call for deliberation about ethics of research and availability of health care.
Why should such discussions be left to the academy when they affect the lives of everyone? Ought not the church to initiate them and make them accessible to the general public? In applying the call to learning that opens the words of the wise, we can teach teaching individuals how to learn and return “reliable words” in their daily work and community life, but we can also call the church to provide a similar service to its members and the larger community.
The rich and poor. Certainly one of the most vexing problems awaiting address by the evangelical church is a moral climate that is at best only mildly disturbed by the growing gap between rich and poor. Yet this concern was first and foremost in the minds of those who produced the words of the wise and Proverbs.15 We have seen that there are those who will use legal systems for purposes opposite of those they were designed for, and some will even use positions of authority to take advantage of the poor and weak. The wise one rejects all such temptations to petty and dishonest gain, but he also remembers that Yahweh takes up the case of those who have been crushed and plundered. Therefore, to respond as God does is to become an advocate for the poor, using whatever resources and authority are available to offer mercy and work for justice.
Christian individuals and churches both can test their “wisdom quotient” by asking how much of their resources of time, wealth, and energy go toward improving the situation of those caught in poverty. Churches especially demonstrate their wisdom learning by sharing this basic disposition so important to the Law, the Prophets, and the Writings. Giving to missions and hunger relief agencies is a wonderful start, especially when it is followed by local involvement. If the church does not know what to do, it can always call local agencies and ask what kind of help is needed. This much is clear: If the sages of old spoke to the concerns of wealth, poverty, and justice, we do well to emulate their example.
Friendships and partnerships. Finally, the warnings against bad associations warn us that friendships and partnerships are never neutral. If we are to become a people who learn, preserve, and teach these wisdom traditions, we are more likely to succeed if we link arms with even-tempered people who take responsibility for their actions rather than hotheads and nonneedy borrowers. Does this mean we are always to steer clear of angry types and never consider making a loan? Not necessarily, for the principle at the heart of these warnings is unwise commitment to those who do not share wisdom’s purposes.
Christians debate over what it means to “be separate” from the world and its lusts, but clearly these warnings do not negate Jesus’ command to be salt and light in the world (Matt. 5:13–16). In the same way the apostle Paul explained that believers cannot avoid all associations with immoral people without leaving this world; they are, however, to avoid association with people who claim to be believers but lack self-control in their sexuality, speech, and appetite (1 Cor. 5:9–11). He advised his hearers, “Do not be yoked together with unbelievers” (2 Cor. 6:14). In other words, Paul reformulated the sage’s principle, stating that the close association of Christian fellowship is incompatible with behaviors devoid of Christian commitment. Certainly those who are concerned only for their own well-being make poor companions and models.
We may not be in the position of a ruler, a servant to a ruler, or any of its contemporary equivalents, but the sages’ counsel to speak wisely, act justly, and avoid partnerships with those who do not is sound advice for all of us. “He has showed you, O man, what is good. And what does the LORD require of you? To act justly and to love mercy and to walk humbly with your God” (Mic. 6:8).