The Second Letter of Paul to the Thessalonians

Second Thessalonians appears to be a letter by Paul (1.1; 3.7) to a Gentile congregation in the Greek city of Thessalonica. Some scholars suggest that Paul wrote 2 Thessalonians to correct misunderstandings in the first letter (2.2); they note that 2 Thessalonians references an earlier work (2.15; 3.17) and observe that the two letters contain parallels in language, structure, and subjects addressed, especially eschatology. The reference to the “temple of God” in 2.4 could then be seen as indicating a date prior to 70 ce, when the Jerusalem Temple was destroyed. However, most contemporary scholars doubt that Paul wrote 2 Thessalonians: they note the contrast between the imminence and unpredictability of the end in (the undisputed) 1 Thessalonians with the drawn-out scenario offered in 2 Thessalonians, the harsher tone of 2 Thessalonians (3.4–12; cf. 1 Thess 1–3), and its insistence on Pauline authorship (2 Thess 3.17). Appeals to Paul’s authority (3.4–12) and the demand for faithfulness to earlier tradition (2.15; 3.6) to squelch end-time fervor also fit a post-Pauline setting.

If Pauline, the letter was probably written shortly after 1 Thessalonians, in the early 50s. If written in Paul’s name—pseudepigraphy was commonly practiced in Jewish, pagan, and Christian circles—a late first-century date seems likely.

Although the historical context is murky, the problems are clear: persecution, disagreements about the end-times, and refusal to work. The author, alternately consoling and reproving, exhorts the congregation to accept his interpretations and avoid false teachings (2.3,10; 3.6). Against those preaching an imminent end, the author notes a series of steps, including a painful period of increasing wickedness (2.3–12). Against those “living in idleness,” perhaps believing the end has arrived or is very close, the mandate is to work (3.11).

The dualistic language divides insiders from outsiders (including followers of Jesus whose views differ from the author’s). The author criticizes those without faith or understanding (3.2,14) and welcomes God’s destruction of opponents (1.8–9). The counterpart to this denunciation is insistence that God protects believers.

Most traditional commentators focused on identifying the “lawless one” or “man of lawlessness” (2.3–9) who “exalts himself above every so-called god” and who “may be revealed” but is now restrained. Reformation-era polemicists denounced both Luther and the pope as the “lawless one.” Some early church fathers said the restrainer was the Roman Empire, which, by maintaining social order, prevented his arrival (Tertullian, Apology 32; J. Chrys., Hom. 2 Thess. 4). Some readers found evidence in 2.4 (“every so-called god”) for a second god, in addition to the God worshipped by Christians (Irenaeus, Adv. Haer. 3.6.5).

Second Thessalonians became a resource for church leaders because its portrait of a confident, even authoritarian Paul offered a model of a strong bishop (Caesarius of Arles, Sermon 232). Its demand for fidelity to tradition buttressed later opponents of views deemed novel or heretical.

The letter says nothing about Jews or Judaism, and it quotes no biblical verses. However, it does appropriate Jewish theological concepts. Parallel to Jewish ideas of God’s election of Israel (e.g., Deut 7.6), 2 Thessalonians insists on believers’ chosenness (1.11; 2.13–14). Though they suffer now, God will soon send relief (1.7). It employs biblical images of sacrifice (2.13) and angels (1.7). It also draws from scenarios about divine deliverance for oppressed Jews (e.g., Dan 7–12; 1–2 En.; 4 Ezra [2 Esd]; 2 Bar.), including enigmatic human and supernatural antagonists such as “the lawless one” (2.3), “Satan” (2.9), and one who “exalts himself” (2.4).

Adam Gregerman

¹Paul, Silvanus, and Timothy,

To the church of the Thessalonians in God our Father and the Lord Jesus Christ:

²Grace to you and peace from God our^a Father and the Lord Jesus Christ.

³We must always give thanks to God for you, brothers and sisters,^b as is right, because your faith is growing abundantly, and the love of every one of you for one another is increasing. ⁴Therefore we ourselves boast of you among the churches of God for your steadfastness and faith during all your persecutions and the afflictions that you are enduring.

⁵This is evidence of the righteous judgment of God, and is intended to make you worthy of the kingdom of God, for which you are also suffering. ⁶For it is indeed just of God to repay with affliction those who afflict you, ⁷and to give relief to the afflicted as well as to us, when the Lord Jesus is revealed from heaven with his mighty angels ⁸in flaming fire, inflicting vengeance on those who do not know God and on those who do not obey the gospel of our Lord Jesus. ⁹These will suffer the punishment of eternal destruction, separated from the presence of the Lord and from the glory of his might, ¹⁰when he comes to be glorified by his saints and to be marveled at on that day among all who have believed, because our testimony to you was believed. ¹¹To this end we always pray for you, asking that our God will make you worthy of his call and will fulfill by his power every good resolve and work of faith, ¹²so that the name of our Lord Jesus may be glorified in you, and you in him, according to the grace of our God and the Lord Jesus Christ.

The Man of Lawlessness and the Restrainer (2 Thess 2.3–4)

The description of the “lawless one” draws on Jewish apocalyptic literature (Pss. Sol. 17.11; 1QM 13.2–5; 3 Sib. Or. 3.63–74) and is modeled on foreign oppressors such as the Seleucid emperor Antiochus IV (second century bce) and the Roman general Pompey (first century bce) (Dan 11.24-45; Ps Sol. 2.1–2; 17.11; Josephus, Ant. 14.72). Both violated the sanctity of the Jerusalem Temple by entering sacred areas closed to Gentiles. Antiochus, who thought himself divine (his nickname was Epiphanes, “[God] Manifest”], also defiled the building by offering idolatrous worship there (Dan 11.31; 1 Macc 1.46). In 40 ce, the emperor Caligula attempted to place his image in the Temple (Philo, Leg. Gai. 188; Josephus, Ant. 18.261). The offensive nature of the lawless one’s “tak[ing] his seat in the temple of God” evokes this history along with the deep Jewish attachment to Jerusalem and the Temple. The letter’s author may have an actual person in mind, perhaps a false teacher or a Roman emperor claiming divine status; the author also may have drawn upon a tradition of an unspecified opponent of God (and God’s people) who will ultimately be destroyed. If this letter were written after 70, the author may envision a third Jerusalem Temple, which many Jews and some Christians expected (2 Bar. 32.4; Barnabas 16.3–4; Justin, Dial. 80–81); this hope was later enshrined in Jewish liturgy (Amidah Blessing 14: “May you [God] rebuild it [Jerusalem] speedily in our days”). Despite their origins in different texts, the figures of the antichrist (1 Jn 2.18,22; 2 Jn 1.7) and the lawless one were eventually linked in eschatological scenarios (e.g., J. Chrys., Hom. 2 Thess. 4, referring to emperor Nero).

²As to the coming of our Lord Jesus Christ and our being gathered together to him, we beg you, brothers and sisters,^a ²not to be quickly shaken in mind or alarmed, either by spirit or by word or by letter, as though from us, to the effect that the day of the Lord is already here. ³Let no one deceive you in any way; for that day will not come unless the rebellion comes first and the lawless one^b is revealed, the one destined for destruction.^c ⁴He opposes and exalts himself above every so-called god or object of worship, so that he takes his seat in the temple of God, declaring himself to be God. ⁵Do you not remember that I told you these things when I was still with you? ⁶And you know what is now restraining him, so that he may be revealed when his time comes. ⁷For the mystery of lawlessness is already at work, but only until the one who now restrains it is removed. ⁸And then the lawless one will be revealed, whom the Lord Jesus^a will destroy^b with the breath of his mouth, annihilating him by the manifestation of his coming. ⁹The coming of the lawless one is apparent in the working of Satan, who uses all power, signs, lying wonders, ¹⁰and every kind of wicked deception for those who are perishing, because they refused to love the truth and so be saved. ¹¹For this reason God sends them a powerful delusion, leading them to believe what is false, ¹²so that all who have not believed the truth but took pleasure in unrighteousness will be condemned.

¹³But we must always give thanks to God for you, brothers and sisters^c beloved by the Lord, because God chose you as the first fruits^d for salvation through sanctification by the Spirit and through belief in the truth. ¹⁴For this purpose he called you through our proclamation of the good news,^e so that you may obtain the glory of our Lord Jesus Christ. ¹⁵So then, brothers and sisters,^c stand firm and hold fast to the traditions that you were taught by us, either by word of mouth or by our letter.

¹⁶Now may our Lord Jesus Christ himself and God our Father, who loved us and through grace gave us eternal comfort and good hope, ¹⁷comfort your hearts and strengthen them in every good work and word.

³Finally, brothers and sisters,^c pray for us, so that the word of the Lord may spread rapidly and be glorified everywhere, just as it is among you, ²and that we may be rescued from wicked and evil people; for not all have faith. ³But the Lord is faithful; he will strengthen you and guard you from the evil one.^f ⁴And we have confidence in the Lord concerning you, that you are doing and will go on doing the things that we command. ⁵May the Lord direct your hearts to the love of God and to the steadfastness of Christ.

⁶Now we command you, beloved,^c in the name of our Lord Jesus Christ, to keep away from believers who are^a living in idleness and not according to the tradition that they^b received from us. ⁷For you yourselves know how you ought to imitate us; we were not idle when we were with you, ⁸and we did not eat anyone’s bread without paying for it; but with toil and labor we worked night and day, so that we might not burden any of you. ⁹This was not because we do not have that right, but in order to give you an example to imitate. ¹⁰For even when we were with you, we gave you this command: Anyone unwilling to work should not eat. ¹¹For we hear that some of you are living in idleness, mere busybodies, not doing any work. ¹²Now such persons we command and exhort in the Lord Jesus Christ to do their work quietly and to earn their own living. ¹³Brothers and sisters,^c do not be weary in doing what is right.

¹⁴Take note of those who do not obey what we say in this letter; have nothing to do with them, so that they may be ashamed. ¹⁵Do not regard them as enemies, but warn them as believers.^d

¹⁶Now may the Lord of peace himself give you peace at all times in all ways. The Lord be with all of you.

¹⁷I, Paul, write this greeting with my own hand. This is the mark in every letter of mine; it is the way I write. ¹⁸The grace of our Lord Jesus Christ be with all of you.^e