GLOSSARY
A
Aaron According to the Bible, the first high priest, brother of Moses and a Levite (Ex 4.14); he was regarded as the progenitor of all later priests.
Abaddon (Heb “place of destruction”) the realm of the dead, a synonym of Sheol (Job 26.6; Prov 15.11; Ps 88.10–12; Rev 9.11).
Abba (Aram “father”) the word Jesus (Mk 14.36) and his followers (Rom 8.15; Gal 4.6) used, consistent with Jewish tradition, to address God.
Abraham the first patriarch (Gen 17), to whom the covenant of circumcision was given (Gen 17.10–14); the ancestor, with his wife Sarah, of the people Israel. The NT presents him as an archetype of the faithful one (Heb 11.8–12), through whom the Gentiles are blessed (Gal 3.6–9), and the ancestor of the faithful (Rom 9.6–18).
acropolis (Gk “height of the city”) fortified upper area of a Greek city.
Acts of Paul and Thecla second-century Christian novel recounting the story of Thecla, a young Greek woman who follows Paul's exhortations to celibacy and who proclaims the gospel. The work describes Paul as small, bald, bowlegged, with a prominent nose and single eyebrow, but noble and full of grace (3), a description that influenced later representations.
Acts of Peter an apocryphal account (probably late second century) of Peter's deeds and martyrdom. It is the source of the well-known story in which Peter encounters Jesus and asks him, “Where are you going?” (Lat quo vadis?). Jesus’ response, “I am going to Rome to be crucified,” prompts Peter to return to Rome and to his death.
AD abbreviation of the Latin Anno Domini [“in the year of our Lord”]; see CE.
Adar the twelfth and final month (February–March) in the Jewish year. To align the lunar calendar with the solar year, a leap year, in which there are two months of Adar, occurs seven times every nineteen-year cycle.
adelphoi (Gk “brothers and sisters”; sing., adelphos) a word that can mean either biological siblings or companions. In the former case, the NRSV translates “brothers” (e.g., Mt 12.46); in the latter, “believers” (Acts 1.15), “friends” (Acts 3.17), or “brothers and sisters” (Rom 1.13). The grammatical gender of any group must be determined from context.
Adonai (Heb “my Lord”) a title that in Jewish worship is generally substituted for the tetragrammaton, YHWH.
agapē (Gk “love”) the term for love most often used by Jesus’ followers (e.g., Jn 13.35).
aggadah (or “haggadah,” likely from Heb huggad, “things said” or “what is told”) non-legal portions of rabbinic writings (see halakhah) especially concerned the moral meaning of Scripture and with elaborating on the stories in the Tanakh.
Akedah (Heb “the binding [of Isaac]”) See Gen 22. This passage is read during synagogue worship on Rosh Ha-Shanah.
Akiva (ca. 50–135 CE) rabbi and tanna martyred in the Hadrianic persecutions connected to the Bar Kochba revolt (132–135). He played an instrumental role in assembling the Oral Torah.
Alexandrinus (so-called because it was brought to Constantinople from Alexandria) a fifth-century codex containing most of the Septuagint and the NT.
Aleinu synagogue prayer that begins aleinu leshabech laʾadon ha-kol, “it is our duty to praise the Lord of all,” the conclusion of regular services. It contains the phrase “to You [God] every knee must bend, every tongue vow loyalty” (cf. Phil 2.10–11).
aliyah (Heb “ascent”) pilgrimage or emigration to the land of Israel or the honor of “ascending” to recite the blessings before and after a Torah reading in synagogue worship.
allegory an extended comparison that directly describes one reality while indirectly describing another (see, e.g., the “Song of the Vineyard” in Isa 5; the parable of the sower in Mt 13.1–8,18–23).
alleluia see hallelujah.
amen (Heb “may it be so”) word signifying assent; based on biblical precedent (e.g., Deut 27.15; Ps 106.48) it became the standard response to prayers in the synagogue and the church.
Amidah (Heb “standing”) the main post-biblical prayer in Jewish worship. Also called the Shemonah Esrei (eighteen [blessings]), and Tefillah (“prayer”). On regular weekdays (not Shabbat or festivals), it now consists of nineteen blessings.
amora (pl. amoraim; adj. amoraic) (Aram “speaker”) rabbinic teacher of the Talmudic period (third century CE onward).
anathema (from Gk “thing dedicated” to Lat “devoted to evil,” “accursed”); a solemn pronouncement condemning a person, thing, or idea as false or evil.
angel (Gk angelos, “messenger”; Heb malakh), heavenly, supernatural being, sometimes representing God.
annunciation announcement to Mary by the angel Gabriel that she will give birth to the one called “holy, the Son of God” (Lk 1.26-38).
anoint to touch or rub with oil as a sign of being dedicated to God, including kings (1 Kings 1.39), priests (Lev 8.30), and liturgical structures (Exod 20.26). Bodies (Ruth 3.3; Dan 10.3; Jtd 10.3), including corpses (Lk 26.53), were also anointed.
antichrist originally a term for false teachers and given in the plural (1 Jn 2.18,22; 4.3; 2 Jn 7), the term comes to indicate in the post-NT period an eschatological figure who opposes God.
antinomianism teaching that “the Law” (Gk nomos) no longer applies to followers of Jesus, who are freed from its requirements. In its restricted sense, this means not being bound by such rules as dietary restrictions; in a larger sense, it was taken to mean that Christians are not bound by any moral rules, a position Paul opposed (see Rom 6,12-19; Gal 5.16-26).
Antioch city on the Orontes River, capital of the Roman province of Syria (not to be confused with Pisidian Antioch, a city on the Anthius River).
antitheses Designation for the rhetorical form “You have heard that it was said...but I say to you” (see Mt 5.21–48).
anti-type something or someone who is prefigured in an earlier event or person. See typology.
aphorism short, memorable saying.
apocalypse (Gk apokalypsis, “uncovering, revelation”) literary genre in which a heavenly being communicates to a human the divine plan for history, the arrangement of the supernatural order, and/or eschatological warnings (see, e.g., Dan 7–12; Mk 13; Revelation).
Apocrypha see deuterocanon, deuterocanonical.
Apocryphal Acts early post-NT Christian writings, often with novelistic flavor and a stress on celibacy, which narrate activities of various apostles such as Peter, Paul, and Thomas.
apologetics an argument of defense, justification, or proof.
apologia (Gk “explanation”) a defense of one's actions or beliefs, usually in a formal speech or document.
apostle (Gk “one who is sent”) a delegate or representative. In the NT, an apostle was one who had known Jesus and could witness to the resurrection (Acts 1.21–22) or a messenger called by God (1 Cor 12.28; Rom 16.7).
Apostles’ Creed a statement of belief, first mentioned in a late fourth-century text, recited by many Christian denominations today.
apotheosis the elevation of a person to the rank of a god.
Aramaic a Semitic language used widely in the Near East during the Persian period (sixth to fourth centuries BCE), though it developed earlier. It became the language of Jews in Israel and the eastern Diaspora, including Jesus and his early followers.
Aramaism the reproduction in another language of phraseology characteristic of Aramaic: “Son of man” (Gk huios tou anthropou) may be derived from Daniel's bar enash (7.13). See Hebraism.
Artapanus (or Artepanus) a Jewish writer, from the 2nd c. BCE, living in Egypt. His main work, On the Jews, has survived only in fragments. He explicates, in highly legendary form, the lives of Abraham, Joseph, and Moses, during their times in Egypt.
aretology (Gk “words about virtue”) a general recounting the deeds of a hero.
Aristeas, Letter of a second century BCE Greek document purporting to describe the translation of the Torah into Greek (see Septuagint) for the king of Egypt.
ark (for the Torah) a box or cabinet, typically of wood, in which the Torah scrolls are stored at the front of the synagogue.
Armageddon traditional site of the final battle between good and evil (Rev 16.6), possibly derived from “Megiddo,” a battle site in Israel's history (Judg 5.19; 2 Kings 9.27).
ascension (Lat “going up”) an account in which a human being goes or is taken into the divine realm. According to Lk 24.51, Jesus ascends soon after his resurrection; Acts 1.1–9 places his ascension forty days later.
asceticism (Gk “training”) self-denial or self-punishment for religious purposes.
avodah (Heb “service”) the sacred service in the Temple (see e.g., Lev 16.2–34), extended to mean the worship of God through prayer.
Avot see Pirkei Avot.
B
Babylon Mesopotamian empire that destroyed the First Temple in 586. It became a stand-in for any tyrannical empire and symbolizes Rome in the book of Revelation.
Babylonian exile the forced relocation of some of the population of Judah after the Babylonian conquest in 597–586 BCE. The exile ended with the permitted return to the land under Cyrus of Persia (beginning 538).
Babylonian Talmud also called the Bavli. This Talmud, mostly reflecting traditions of the rabbis in Babylon through the fifth century CE, is a commentary on several Mishnaic tractates. In Judaism, it is more authoritative than the Jerusalem Talmud or Yerushalmi. See Talmud.
baptism immersion in water, a practice found throughout Mediterranean antiquity for ritual purification. John the Baptist (Mk 1.4) may have derived his practice from Jewish purification rituals (Lev 15.18). Paul's connection of baptism with Jesus’ death and resurrection (Rom 6.1–14) extended its meaning from purification to initiation into a new community and new identity.
bar Aram “son”
Bar Kochba (Aram “son of a star”) sobriquet of Shimon Bar Kosiba (d. 135 CE), leader of the unsuccessful second Jewish revolt against Rome; he was proclaimed the Messiah by Akiva.
bar mitzvah (Aram “son of commandment”) a Jewish male who at age 13 takes on adult responsibility for performing the mitzvoth. The ritual marking this adult role (also called a Bar Mitzvah) well post-dates the NT.
bat qol (Heb lit. “daughter of [the] voice,” “echo”) rabbinic term for a heavenly voice and likely the idea behind the voice at Jesus’ baptism and transfiguration.
Bavli see Babylonian Talmud.
BC abbreviation for “Before Christ”; see BCE.
BCE Before the Common Era, an alternative to BC (“Before Christ”).
beatitudes (from Lat beatus, “blessed”) the series of Jesus’ pronouncements in Mt 5.3–11 beginning with (Gk) makarioi, “blessed” or “fortunate”; cf. the Heb ashrei (e.g., Ps 144.15).
Beelzebul (also Baalzebul, Baalzebub, Beelzebub) ruler of the demons (Mt 12.24–27). The name derives from the Heb Baalzebul, “exalted lord,” a title of the Phoenician god (2 Kings 1.2–18), transformed into the derogatory Baalzebub, “lord of flies.”
Beliar (probable variant of “Belial,” a Heb word meaning “worthless”) the personified leader of evil forces opposed to God; in the DSS Belial/Beliar is the leader of the forces of darkness (“War Scroll” 1QM 13); the term occurs once in the NT at 2 Cor 6.15.
Beloved Disciple follower “whom Jesus loved” (Jn 13.23; 19.26; 21.20) and upon whose authority the Gospel of John rests (Jn 21.24).
Benedictus (Lat “blessed”) canticle sung by John the Baptist's father, Zechariah (Lk 1.5-25).
Bereshit Hebrew title of Genesis (from its first word, “[When] in the beginning”).
berit (also brit and bris; Heb “covenant”) the term can specifically refer to circumcision (Heb brit milah, lit. the “covenant of circumcision”). See covenant.
binyan ‘av (“construction of a father”) a form of rabbinic argumentation which entails using one Torah passage to reach a conclusion regarding another.
birchat ha-mazon (Heb “blessing for nourishment”) the Jewish blessing recited after a meal.
birchat ha-minim (Heb “blessing [i.e., ‘curse’] on heretics”) the twelfth blessing of the Amidah; one ancient version, no longer recited, curses minim (heretics) and Nazareans (perhaps Jewish Christians).
birchat ha-motsi (Heb “blessing for bringing out [bread from the earth]”) the Jewish blessing before a meal.
bishop (Old English bisceop, from Gk episkopos, “overseer”) usually the head of the church in a particular area (where there might be more than one congregation) e.g., Phil 1.1; 1 Tim 3.1–7. See deacon, presbyter.
Bodmer papyri a collection of 22 papyrus texts, in Greek and Coptic, containing biblical passages (Tanakh and NT) as well as some classical literature (Homer and Menander). They were discovered in Egypt in 1952 and purchased (by Martin Bodmer, a Swiss scholar). The NT texts include John's Gospel, Jude, and 1 and 2 Peter.
Booths, Feast (Festival) of see Sukkoth.
born again in Jn 3.3,7 Jesus tells Nicodemus, “You must be born anōthen”: the Greek can be translated “anew,” “from above,” or “again”; the pun works in Greek, but not in Aramaic or Hebrew. Passages such as Rom 6.3–11 suggest that believers are “reborn” into a new family based on faith rather than biology or marriage.
C
caduceus (Latinized form of Gk kērykeion, “herald's staff”) a staff with two intertwined serpents winding around the rod and two wings at the head, carried by Hermes, the messenger of the gods.
Cairo Genizah the storeroom (a genizah is a storage room for worn, no longer usable copies of Jewish texts) of the synagogue of Fostat in Old Cairo (built 882 CE) where thousands of fragments of texts, including a portion of Ben Sirach (Ecclesiasticus) in Hebrew, rabbinic documents, translations of the Bible, liturgical texts, poetry, letters, and other writings were discovered.
Canaan early designation for the area roughly equivalent to the land of Israel.
canon (Gk “measuring rod”) the rule by which something is determined to belong to a category; the official list of the books that comprise the Scriptures. See “Canon of the New Testament,” p. 695.
Captivity Epistles the four letters written by Paul, or in his name, from prison: Philippians, Colossians, Philemon, and Ephesians.
Catholic Epistles (from Gk katholikos, “according to the whole,” “universal”) designation along with “General Epistles” for the NT letters James, 1 and 2 Peter, 1, 2, and 3 John, and Jude.
CD the Cairo-Damascus Document (earlier called the Zadokite Document), known from discoveries in the Cairo Genizah, complements much of the material in the Qumran Community Rule (1QS).
CE Common Era; an alternative to AD.
centurion commander of a company in the Roman army.
Cephas (from Aram kepha, “rock”), another name for Peter (Matt 16.17-18).
Chalcedon, Council of the council (451 CE) that defined Jesus’ union of divine and human natures.
charis NT (Gk) word for “grace,” “kindness.”
charisma a gift of spiritual grace, particularly a manifestation of the Holy Spirit such as glossolalia (speaking in tongues) or prophecy.
cherubim composite creatures with body parts from various animals; they often had wings and human heads (see Heb 9.5).
Christ (Gk “anointed”) translation of Heb mashiach, “messiah.” In NT usage, generally a title, “Christ,” “the anointed one”; in use today as an alternative name for Jesus.
Christian, relatively late term for a believer in Jesus as Lord, used only three times in the NT: Acts 11.26; 26.28; 1 Pet 4.16.
Christian Hebraists Christian scholars who taught the importance of returning to the Hebrew text of the “Old Testament” as opposed to relying on the Vulgate and who studied Hebrew with rabbinic scholars. The beginnings of medieval Christian Hebraism are generally traced to Andrew of St. Victor (d. 1175), and it reached its zenith in the Renaissance.
Christology statements concerning the nature of Christ, or the study of the meaning of Jesus’ role, character, and purpose.
church fathers see patristic writers.
circumcision removal of the foreskin of the penis (see berit). In Paul's writings, “circumcised” and “uncircumcised” (Gal 2.7) refer to Jews and Gentiles respectively.
Clement of Alexandria Christian theologian (ca. 150–ca. 215) who argued that Christianity fulfilled both the Jewish Scriptures and Greek philosophy.
Clement of Rome (fl. 96) the bishop of Rome who wrote the letter known as 1 Clement to the church at Corinth.
codex (pl. codices) a manuscript of separate pages, bound along one edge, like contemporary books. Christian communities adopted the codex form, while Jews continued to write their sacred texts on scrolls.
colophon (Gk “summit,” by extension “finishing touch”) a notice, usually written at the end of a book, giving information about authorship (e.g., Sir 50.27).
Community Rule (or “Rule of the Community” or serech ha-yachad, 1QS) a Dead Sea Scroll that sets out the arrangements under which the community functioned: holding property in common; eating, blessing, and advising one another in unity; preparing for the eschaton; training new members.
Coptic Egyptian dialect from approximately the first century ce.
cosmology an account of the nature of the world.
Council of Trent the twenty-ninth ecumenical council of the Roman Catholic Church (1545–1563), held after the Protestant Reformation had begun. Among other decisions, it defined the Catholic canon.
covenant (Heb berit) a treaty between God and Israel. The Septuagint generally translated berit by the Greek diathēkē, which can mean “testament.” Jeremiah's phrase berit chadashah (“new covenant,” 31.31) was translated diathēkē kainē (LXX Jer 38.31; see Lk 22.20); its Latin translation, novum testamentum, became the name of the collection known as the NT.
D
Day of Atonement Heb Yom Kippur, commemorated on the tenth day of the seventh month (Tishri), a day of repentance, fasting, and abstinence, as well as performance of special rituals (see Lev 16) before the Temple was destroyed.
Day of the Lord the time mentioned in many prophetic books (e.g., Am 5.18) when God's justice fully prevails.
Day of Preparation the day before a Sabbath or festival. Mk 15.42 describes the day of Jesus’ crucifixion as “the day of Preparation, that is, the day before the sabbath.” In Jn 19.14, Jesus’ crucifixion take place on “the day of Preparation for the Passover.”
deacon (Gk diakonos, “servant”) church official; see e.g., 1 Tim 3.8–13.
Dead Sea Scrolls a group of manuscripts found beginning in 1947 in caves near the Dead Sea, at Wadi Qumran. The scrolls were probably the library of a settlement, likely of Essenes, that flourished from the second century BCE until the Romans destroyed it in 68 ce. The works, in Hebrew, Aramaic and Greek, include the oldest surviving copies of books that became part of the Tanakh, other scrolls that interpreted books that became part of the Tanakh (see pesher), and scrolls detailing regulations for the life of the community.
Decalogue (Gk “ten words”) a name for the list of commandments in Ex 20.1–17, Deut 5.6–21, often called the Ten Commandments.
Demetrius Jewish historian in the 3rd c. BCE, living in Egypt. Most of his work has been lost, but his writings were known to Josephus and the Christian historian Eusebius.
demon (Gk daimonion, originally a minor divinity) an evil spirit regarded as causing physical and mental ailments.
demoniac one possessed by demons.
denarius, Roman silver coin equivalent to a daily wage.
derash (Heb d-r-sh, “inquire”) interpretation (see midrash).
derekh eretz (Heb “way of [the] land”) the path of righteousness one should follow.
deuterocanon, deuterocanonical (Gk “second canon”) a group of about 20 Jewish works, many included in the Septuagint, which were not accepted into the Jewish canon. These texts (e.g., Judith, 1,2 Maccabees, ben Sirah [Ecclesiasticus]) are extra-canonical for Protestants; some are canonical for Roman Catholics; a few more are canonical for Orthodox Christians (see chart, p. 619). Also known as Old Testament Apocrypha.
Deutero-Isaiah scholarly term for Isa 40–55.
Deutero-Pauline designation for letters attributed to Paul but which many modern scholars regard as pseudonymous, written by someone other than Paul. The list usually includes Ephesians, Colossians, 1 and 2 Timothy, Titus, and sometimes 2 Thessalonians.
deuteronomistic pertaining to the editor(s) of the history comprised in the books of Joshua, Judges, Samuel, and Kings, as prefaced by the book of Deuteronomy.
Diaspora (Gk “dispersal”) the home of Jews outside the land of Israel (see Jn 7.35); the church adapted the term to refer to its members outside the kingdom of heaven (Jas 1.1; 1 Pet 1.1).
diathēkē (from Gk diatithēmi, “arrange” or “assign,” “dispose of” in making a will) a testament or covenant; see covenant; testament.
diatribe a rhetorical argument against another's position.
Didache (Gk “teaching”) a late first- or early second- century Christian writing, also called the Teaching of the Twelve Apostles, which contains material similar to the canonical Gospels (esp. Matthew).
Diodorus Siculus (Diodorus of Sicily) Greek historian of the 1st c. BCE. He wrote a large history of the world (Historikē Bibliothēkē, “Historical Library”), much of which has survived. It includes pre-history through the Trojan War, Alexander the Great, and up to Caesar's “Gallic Wars.”
disciple a follower, an adherent of a particular teaching.
docetism (from Gk dokeō, “seem”) early Christian teaching maintaining that Jesus only seemed to be a human being.
doxology (Gk “word of glory”) a prayer of praise to God (e.g., Rom 16.25–27).
dualism the view that reality consists of two opposing elements, often seen as “good” and “evil.”
dynamis (Gk “power,” “strength,” “might”) in the NT often the divinely given ability to do something (Acts 3.12), usually translated “miracle,” “mighty work” or “deed of power.”
E
ecclesia (Gk “assembly,” “congregation”) a regular convocation of a group; in LXX the word usually translates Heb qahal, an assembly of Israelites. It comes to designate a Christian congregation, a church.
Eighteen Benedictions see Amidah.
elder see presbyter.
elect, election idea that certain persons or groups are chosen for a particular role (2 Pet 1.10). Some NT texts regard the followers of Jesus as assuming Israel's role as God's people (1 Pet 2.4–10; Gal 4.22–5.1).
Elephantine Papyri Aramaic documents, mostly from the fifth century BCE, from a Jewish colony on the island of Elephantine, near modern Aswan in Egypt.
Elohim Heb word usually translated “God,” and sometimes “gods.”
Enoch, books of writings dating from the third century BCE to the sixth century CE, attributed to Enoch (see Gen 5.21-24). 1 Enoch, a collection of apocalyptic visions, is quoted in Jude 14–15. 2 Enoch contains a series of linked visions of ascent through seven heavens.
entolē (Gk “charge,” “command” usually for Heb mitzvah) a commandment, especially one from God, e.g., Mt 15.3.
Epicureans Greek philosophical school, founded by Epicurus, who taught that human beings naturally seek pleasure, and that the best way to achieve this pursuit was in moderation.
Epiphanes a title, “[God] made manifest,” adopted by Antiochus IV, the Seleucid-Greek king who promoted pagan worship in the Jerusalem Temple, thus provoking the Maccabean revolt (167-164 BCE).
epiphany (Gk “manifestation,” “appearance”) the appearance of a divine being.
epistle a letter intended for public reading.
Epistle of Barnabas a late first- or early second-century anti-Jewish Christian text that claims Jews lost their covenantal status with the incident of the golden calf and that biblical Law must be understood allegorically (e.g., prohibition of pork means that people are not to act like swine).
Erasmus of Rotterdam (1466-1536) Dutch Christian theologian and scholar. He remained in the Catholic Church during the Reformation, though he agreed that the church needed to be reformed. He published the first printed Greek NT in 1516, and it had wide circulation though later scholars have found its textual accuracy lacking.
eschaton, eschatological, eschatology (Gk eschata, “last things”) a concern with the end time or the end of the world.
Essenes Jewish movement, first century BCE to first century CE, which rejected the Jerusalem establishment and kept the Torah with utmost rigor.
ethnos/ethnē (Gk “nation,” “race,” “people,” or, depending on context, “Gentiles”) Heb goyyim.
Eucharist ritual or service of thanksgiving, centering on the sharing of bread and wine, based on Jesus’ final meal (see Last Supper).
Eupolemus Jewish Hellenistic historian of the 2nd c. BCE, probably living in Maccabean Judah. Fragments of his work survive in quotations, mostly in the church historian Eusebius.
eusebeia Gk “piety,” “reverence,” “religion.”
Eusebius (ca. 263–339) Bishop of Caesarea (from 314). His Ecclesiastical History surveys the development of Christianity.
evangelist (from Gk euangelion, “good news”) the author of a Gospel or, more broadly, one who proclaims the “good news” of Jesus.
exegesis (Gk “lead into”) the explanation or interpretation of a text.
F
Festival of Weeks see Shavuot.
First Temple the Temple in Jerusalem, which according to the Bible was constructed by Solomon (tenth century BCE), and was destroyed by Babylon in 586 BCE. The First Temple period extends from the tenth to the sixth centuries BCE.
Former Prophets the first part of the section of the Tanakh called “the Prophets” (Neviʾim): the books of Joshua, Judges, Samuel, and Kings.
Fourth Ezra chs 3–14 of 2 Esdras, a late-first-century CE Jewish apocalypse, incorporated into a Christian frame, set during the Babylonian exile (586–538 BCE) but referring to the destruction of the Second Temple.
fringes see tzitzit.
fulfillment citations quotations from the Tanakh/LXX in the Gospel of Matthew and elsewhere that proclaim the events in Jesus’ life are “fulfillments” of verses understood as predictions.
fundamentalist in its narrow meaning, a conservative Protestant who holds to the five fundamentals: the sole authority of Scripture; the Virgin Birth of Jesus; the doctrine of substitutionary atonement; Jesus’ bodily resurrection; and his Second Coming to judge the world.
G
Gabriel one of two named angels in Tanakh (Dan 8.16; the other is Michael, Dan 12.1). Gabriel serves as a messenger from God (see, e.g., Lk 1.19,26).
Galilee Israel's northernmost geographical area.
Galilee, Sea of (Mt 4.18; 15.29; Mk 1.16; 7.31) freshwater lake in Galilee, also called Chinnereth (Heb “harp”), Lake of Gennesaret (Lk 5.1), and Sea of Tiberias (Jn 6.1; 21.1).
gaon, gaonim title of heads of rabbinic academies in Babylonia from the mid-6th to 11th centuries ce. The title comes from the phrase, roʾesh yeshivat gaʾʿon Yaʿakov, “head of the academy [that is] the pride of Jacob.”
Gehenna the place of punishment after death (see Mt 5.22). The name derives from Heb gei ben hinnom, “valley of the sons of Hinnom,” a place south of Jerusalem thought to be where children were burnt as sacrificial offerings: Josiah (2 Kings 23.10) destroyed the site, but its associations with burning and evil remained, and developed into the image of burning punishment.
Gemara ( Aram “completion”) commentary that supplements and extends the Mishnah. The Mishnah and the Gemara together form the Talmud.
gematria (likely from Gk geometria) a procedure for interpreting a word or phrase by its numerical value, with each Hebrew letter representing a number (alef=1; bet=2, etc.; see Rev 13.18).
General Epistles see Catholic Epistles.
Genesis Rabbah a commentary on most of Genesis, assembling rabbinic midrashic explications, discussions of individual verses and words, and occasional legal discussions.
genizah see Cairo Genizah.
Gentile a person who is neither a Jew nor a Samaritan. See ethnē.
Gnosticism (from Gk gnōsis, “knowledge”) a philosophy that regards spirit and matter as opposites and the material world as created by an inferior divine being; in Gnostic teaching, “knowledge” (as opposed to faith or the cross) gains salvation.
Gospel (Old English “god spel,” “good news,” translating Gk euangelion) a written account of Jesus’ life or sayings, or more broadly, the “good news” of his life and death.
goyyim (Heb “nations,” “peoples”) a general term for non-Israelite peoples. See ethnē.
gymnaō (from Gk gymnos, “naked”) to exercise (in a gymnasion or place of physical training).
H
Hades the abode of the dead in Greek thought; in the NT the general name for the place where souls go after death (e.g., Mt 11.23; Acts 2.27).
haftarah (Heb “conclusion”) the reading from a prophetic book that follows the Torah reading in the Sabbath or festival service.
haggadah see aggadah.
Haggadah of Pesach (“telling of Passover”) the liturgical recitation at the Passover Seder; also the book that contains the words of the recitation.
hagioi (Gk “holy ones,” “saints”) a standard address in NT letters for the members of a congregation; see, e.g., Rom 1.7; 1 Cor 1.2; Eph 1.1.
halakhah (Heb “way,” from halakh “go”; pl. halakhot) the legal portions of the Talmud, or any legal ruling according to Jewish law.
Hallel (Heb “praise”) Psalms 113–118, recited on major Jewish festivals.
hallelujah (Gk and Lat “alleluia”) Hebrew acclamation, “Praise Yah!”
Haninah ben Dosa first-century CE rabbi known for performing miraculous healing.
Hanukkah (Heb “dedication”) the commemoration of the rededication of the Temple on 25 Kislev 164 BCE, after the Maccabees defeated the supporters of Antiochus IV.
ha-Shem see Shem.
Hasidic, Hasidim (Heb Hasid, “pious one”) (1) a pietistic Jewish group in the Maccabean period; (2) a Jewish renewal movement that began in eastern Europe under the influence of the Baal Shem Tov (“master of the good Name”), R. Yisrael ben Eliezer (ca. 1700–1760).
Haskalah (Heb “erudition”) a Jewish movement mostly in eastern and central Europe, from the second half of the 18th c. to the late 19th c., similar to the Enlightenment in the European continent, stressing reason, modernization, freedom of inquiry, and working for the revival of Hebrew as a living language.
Hasmonean the dynasty descended from the Maccabees. It ruled Israel from 135 to 36 BCE, when Herod overthrew it.
Hasmonean Revolt the uprising led by the family of Mattathias Heshmon against Antiochus IV Epiphanes beginning in 167 BCE, which succeeded in liberating Jerusalem and the surrounding territory from Seleucid rule in 164. See Hannukah.
Haustafeln see Household code.
haverim [or chaverim] Heb “friends,” “those in fellowship.”
Hebraism the reproduction in another language of characteristic Hebrew phraseology; see Son of Man (Gk huios tou anthrōpou), which may be derived from ben adam, frequent in Ezekiel. See Aramaism.
Hecataeus of Abdera Greek historian of the 4th c. BCE, whose works are known only in quotation and paraphrase, mostly from Diodorus Siculus (see). His primary work was a history of Egypt.
hekhalot (Heb “palaces”) visionary writings in the form of travels through heavenly realms; often connected to merkavah mysticism.
Hellenism Greek culture, politics, and language spread following the conquests of Alexander the Great (d. 323 BCE).
hen Heb “grace,” “favor”; see charis.
Herodian followers and members of the court of Herod the Great and his sons.
Herodotus (ca. 484-ca. 425 BCE) Greek historian. His work, The Histories, on the wars between Greece and Persia, is an early effort to assess sources and use them critically.
hesed Heb “lovingkindness,” “mercy.”
Hexapla (Gk “six-fold”) the compendium compiled by Origen (d. 254 CE) of six Bible versions in columns: 1. Hebrew, 2. Hebrew transliterated into Greek, 3. Greek [Aquila], 4. Greek [Symmachus], 5. Septuagint, 6. Greek [Theodotion]). The original 7,000-page Hexapla is lost, but quotations exist in various writings including a Syriac translation of column 5 (known as the Syro-Hexapla), prepared by a Christian bishop, Paul of Tella (618–19).
high priest leading priest in the Jerusalem Temple. In the first century CE, Roman rulers (or their agent, the ruler of Judea) influenced the choice of the high priest.
hilasterion (Gk “place of propitiation or expiation”) the covering of the Ark (Ex 25.17, kapporet, LXX hilasterion), regarded as a place from which to ask mercy or forgiveness; Rom 3.25 applies the term to Jesus’ death.
Hillel an important rabbinic sage of the first century BCE; according to tradition, he migrated from Babylonia to Israel. Tradition also suggests that he set up a “house” or scholarly school. The House of Hillel often differs with the House of Shammai in halakhic rulings and is typically more lenient.
Holy Spirit the Spirit (Gk pneuma; Heb ruah*) of God regarded as a source of power or love (in Tanakh usually “spirit of God” [e.g., Gen 1.2; Num 24.2] or “spirit of the LORD” [e.g., Judg 6.34], but sometimes “holy Spirit” [Ps 51.11; Heb v. 13]). See Trinity.
homiletical having the character or function of a sermon.
hosanna Hebrew phrase (hoshaʿ naʾ) meaning “Save!,” used as a cry of acclamation (Ps 118.26; Mt 21.9).
Hoshanah Rabbah (Heb “great Hosanna”) the seventh day of Sukkot when the worshipers ask for salvation; it marks the end of the days of judgment that began on Rosh Ha-Shanah.
household code (German haustafeln) Greek and then Roman formulaic prescriptions for members of an extended family. See, e.g., Eph 5.22–6.9.
hypostatization speaking of an abstract quality as if it were an object or being.
I
idolatry worship of anything other than what the worshiper defines as the true God.
Idumea Greek form of “Edom”; country located south of Judea between the Dead Sea and the Mediterranean.
Ignatius bishop of Antioch (ca. 35–ca. 107). On his way to martyrdom in Rome, Ignatius wrote epistles to the Ephesians, Magnesians, Trallians, Romans, Philadelphians, and Smyrnians, as well as to Polycarp, bishop of Smyrna.
incarnation (Lat “enfleshment” from carne, carnis, “flesh,” translation of Gk sarx) the taking on of human flesh (becoming human) by the divine.
inerrancy doctrine that the Bible is without error. In its most expansive form, inerrancy asserts that the Bible's original manuscripts contain no errors—theological, historical, or scientific. A more restrained version claims that the Bible is inerrant in matters of faith, but that it may contain material that cannot be reconciled with science.
inspiration belief that words uttered by a human being stem from a divine source. Christian tradition applies the notion to the Bible (see 2 Tim 3.16, “All scripture is inspired by God and is useful for teaching, for reproof, for correction, and for training in righteousness”).
intercalation (1) Adding an extra time unit (day or month) to a calendar to compensate for the inexact fit between the solar year and the lunar cycle. See Adar. (2) The sandwiching of one story into another, e.g., the hemorrhaging woman and Jairus's daughter (Mk 5.21-43).
interpolation material inserted into a previously existent text. Absent textual evidence, e.g., differing manuscript readings, interpolation must be inferred and is often the subject of scholarly disagreement (examples include Jn 8.1–11 and possibly 1 Cor 14.33b–36; 1 Thess 2.14b–16).
intertextuality the interrelationship between one part of a text (or collection of texts) and other parts created by recurrent images (the vineyard in Isa 5.1–10 and 27.2–4; see also Mk 12.1-11), quotation and/or inner biblical interpretation (Jer 25.11–12 is partly quoted in Dan 9.2 before it is reinterpreted; 1 Cor 3.20 quotes Ps 94.11), or allusion (Matthew's Sermon on the Mount [chs 5–7] alludes to the Sinaitic covenant).
Isis the Egyptian mother-goddess.
J
Jerome (ca. 340–420) Christian theologian who produced in 405 a Latin version of the Old Testament, the Vulgate, based on the Hebrew.
Jerusalem Talmud also called the Yerushalmi or the Palestinian Talmud. This Talmud, mostly reflecting traditions of the Galilean amoraim of the third and fourth centuries, is a commentary on several Mishnaic tractates. In Judaism, it is less authoritative than the longer, more comprehensive, and more carefully edited Babylonian Talmud. See Talmud.
Johannine pertaining to writings traditionally ascribed to John: the Gospel of John, 1, 2, and 3 John, and the book of Revelation.
Joseph and Aseneth a romance (ca. second century BCE to first century CE) that recounts the love of the Egyptian Aseneth for Joseph, her conversion to his religion, their marriage, the plot of Pharaoh's son to kill Joseph and abduct Aseneth, and Joseph's appointment as ruler of Egypt.
Josephus Hellenistic Jewish historian ca. 37–100 ce. His extant writings are The Jewish War, an account of the rebellion against Rome in 66–70 CE, with background information starting at about 200 BCE; The Antiquities of the Jews, a complete history from the creation up to the point where The Jewish War begins; Against Apion, a defense of Judaism; and an autobiography, Life.
Jubilees, a book, pseudonymously attributed to Moses, retelling much of Genesis and Exodus and representing itself as a hidden revelation from the Angel of the Presence. It was most likely written in Israel in the third or second century BCE.
Judaizers Gentile followers of Jesus who maintained, or were accused of maintaining, Jewish practices such as circumcision and dietary restrictions.
Justification (Gk dikaiosyne; Heb tzedek) making or declaring someone righteous or in a right relationship with God; how Paul understands the function of Jesus’ death and resurrection (e.g., Rom 4.25).
Justin Martyr early Christian author (b. 103) of two Apologies, Dialogue with Trypho, a (fictional) debate with a Jewish critic, and a fragment of a work on the resurrection. He was executed by Rome in 165.
K
kabbalah “what is received,” i.e., matter handed down. In the twelfth century, kabbalah came to mean esoteric or mystical teaching.
Kaddish (Aram “holiness,” “sanctification”) prayer in praise of God that is recited at the conclusion of a principal section of the synagogue service; a special Kaddish is recited in memory of the deceased.
Karaites (lit. “Scripturists” from Heb miqraʾ) theological movement in Judaism dating from Babylonia in the 8th c. ce. Karaites claimed to be restoring an original form of Judaism from the Second Temple period; they were opposed by rabbis of their time.
kashrut see kosher.
kavod Heb “glory,” usually as a divine attribute.
Kedushah (Heb “holiness”) prayers of sanctification of God, esp. the third blessing of the Amidah, including the words “Holy, holy, holy...” (Isa 6.3).
Kerygma (Gk “proclamation”), the content of the “good news” of Jesus.
Ketuvim the Writings, the third division of the Tanakh.
Kiddush short for kiddush ha-yom, “sanctification of the day,” both the ceremony and the prayer that proclaims the holiness of the Sabbath or festival, recited over wine before the Sabbath or festival meal.
kiddush ha-Shem (Heb “sanctify the Name”) the duty to guard the honor of God and God's name (Lev 22.32) even under threat of martyrdom.
Kimchi, Rabbi David see Radak.
kingdom of God/kingdom of heaven in the NT sometimes regarded as aspect of the eschatological age (e.g., 1 Cor 15.23–28; Mk 14.25), sometimes as realized in the present (Lk 17.21; Col 1.13).
King James Version (KJV) an English translation of the Bible, published first in 1611.
Kislev third month (November/December) in the Jewish calendar; Hanukkah begins on 25 Kislev.
kohen (pl. kohanim) (Heb “priest”) a member of the hereditary group traditionally descended from Aaron.
koinonia Gk “community,” “fellowship.”
korban (Heb “offering,” “oblation,” “sacrifice”) a general term for the offering of sacrifice (e.g., Lev 1.2).
kosher (Heb “fit” or “proper”) a general term used in post-biblical texts for food permitted under Jewish dietary laws.
kyrios Gk, a title of respect: “lord” or “sir,” used in LXX in place of the tetragrammaton, and applied to Jesus in the NT.
L
L designation for the source of materials unique to Luke's Gospel, such as, probably, the parable of the prodigal son (Lk 15.11–32). Determining L material from Lucan redaction remains speculative.
Last Supper meal that Jesus and his disciples shared the night before his crucifixion; dated by Matthew (26.17), Mark (14.12), and Luke (22.7–8), but not John (13.1; 19.14,31) to the first night of Pesach. See Eucharist.
Latter Prophets section of Neviʾim comprised of the books of Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and the Book of the Twelve.
Law usual English translation of Torah. The Septuagint uses the word nomos, usually meaning “law,” to translate (Heb) Torah, and the NT writers follow the Septuagint.
lectionary a list of scriptural readings for Sundays, holy days, and sometimes weekdays (in Christianity). In many churches, readings from the Old Testament, a psalm, a Gospel text, and another NT document, usually a letter.
legalism a pejorative label and stereotype used by Christian writers to indicate that Jews adhere to Torah in a rote manner, unconcerned with mercy or personal spirituality.
legate an official representative.
legion the basic unit of the Roman army, consisting of up to 6,000 men (see Mt 26.53); name of a demon Jesus exorcised (Mk 5.9; Lk 8.30).
Letter of Aristeas see Aristeas, Letter of.
lev, levav Heb “heart,” “mind”; the inner person.
levirate marriage (from Lat levir, “husband's brother”) the provision that if a man died without an heir, his brother would marry the widow and the first son she bore would be regarded as the dead brother's heir (Deut 25.5–10). By rabbinic times ḥalitzah, the ceremony that released the levir from this obligation, was preferred.
Levite a member of the tribe of Levi, one set aside for service to God (Deut 18.2); by Second Temple times, Levites were Temple functionaries of secondary importance to priests.
lex talionis (Lat “law [of retribution] in kind”) punishment fitting the crime, e.g., “an eye for an eye.”
libation (Lat libationem, “poured out”) a ritual offering to a deity of a liquid, typically wine or oil, by pouring it out on the ground.
litotes a figure of speech negating the opposite of what is meant; emphasizes by understatement.
liturgy the form or rite for communal, public worship.
Livy Titus Livius (59 [or 64] BCE-17 CE) Roman historian whose major work, a history of Rome, Ab Urbe Condita Libri, “Books from the Founding of the City,” covers the period from before the city's beginning (traditional date, 753 BCE) to Livy's time and the Emperor Augustus.
Logos Gk “word,” “reason”; the organizing principle of the cosmos; the rational basis of thought. See Jn 1.1,14; cf. Aram memre.
Lord's Day, Sunday, first day of the week (Rev. 1.10), so named for the proclamation of Jesus’ resurrection; it eventually came to replace the (Saturday) Sabbath for Christians.
Lord's Prayer prayer, also called the “Our Father,” given by Jesus as a model for his followers (Mt 6.9–13; Lk 11.2–4).
Lord's Supper see Eucharist.
LXX the Roman numeral 70, abbreviation for the Septuagint.
lytron Gk “ransom,” a payment to secure release from captivity or debt.
M
M designation for the source of materials unique Matthew's Gospel, such as, probably the account of the Magi (2.1–12). Determining M material from Matthean redaction remains speculative.
Maccabees see Hasmonean Revolt.
mahloket dispute or argument.
Magi (sing. “magus”) astrologers and magicians.
Magnificat (Lat “makes great,” “magnifies”), Mary's hymn (Lk 1.46-55), known for its first word in the Latin translation (Lk 1.46–55).
Maimonides Rabbi Mosheh ben Maimon (1135–1204), medieval Spanish Jewish scholar, physician, and philosopher also known by the acronym (from his Hebrew name) Rambam (Rav Mosheh Ben Maimon). He compiled the Mishneh Torah, a codification of rabbinic law and explicated Jewish beliefs as congruent with Aristotelianism in his Guide to the Perplexed.
makarisms from makarioi, see beatitudes.
malkhut shamayim Heb “kingdom of heaven.”
martyr (Gk “witness”) a person who demonstrates loyalty by remaining faithful even when threatened with death.
Martyrdom of Isaiah a Hellenistic Jewish work that describes how Isaiah died by being sawn in two (see Heb 11.37).
mashiah see Messiah.
masorah (Heb “tradition”) a system of markings (vowel signs, marginal notes, cantillation and accent marks, etc.) added to the consonantal Hebrew text of the Tanakh by the Masoretes.
Masoretes scholars of the scribal schools that in the early Middle Ages ensured the accurate copying of the Tanakh by a system of markings (masorah).
Masoretic text (MT) text of the Tanakh, established by the Masoretes. The text consists of the Hebrew consonants, vowel signs, cantillation and accent markings, and other notes. Texts derived from this effort date from ca. 900 to 1000 ce.
matzah unleavened bread, eaten on Passover.
Megillot Heb “scrolls,” specifically the five books of Ketuvim that are read on holy days: Song of Songs (Pesach), Ruth (Shavuot), Lamentations (Ninth of Av, the day commemorating the destruction of the Jerusalem Temple), Ecclesiastes (Sukkot), and Esther (Purim).
Mekilta (or Mekhilta) two halakhic midrashic commentaries on sections of Exodus, one attributed to R. Ishmael and the other to R. Shimeon bar Yoḥai.
Melekh ha-Olam Heb “ruler of the universe,” a rabbinic title for God.
merkavah (Heb “chariot”) the title for visionary writings that describe the heavenly realms; based on the vision in Ezekiel ch 1. See hekhalot.
merit of the fathers (Heb zekhut avot) the concept that righteous behavior by the patriarchs can redound to the benefit of the people as a whole.
Messiah (Heb mashiaḥ, “anointed”; see 1 Sam 24.6; Isa 45.1) the term came to designate an eschatological savior and was adopted by Christians to refer to Jesus, called in Gk christos, “anointed.” In the Tanakh, mashiaḥ does not refer to an eschatological, divine figure.
messianic secret Jesus’ practice, particularly in Mark's Gospel, of demanding followers, those he has healed, and demons to remain silent about him and his acts (e.g., Mk 1.34; 1.43–44; 3.12; 5.43; 8.30).
mezuzah (Heb “doorpost”) a parchment affixed to the doorpost on which are written the paragraphs of the Shema (Deut 6.4–9; 11.13–21), and on the back sh-d-y (“Shaddai,” “Almighty”). Many mezuzot (pl. of mezuzah) were found among the Dead Sea Scrolls.
Michael (Heb “who is like God?”), one of two named angels in the Tanakh (along with Gabriel); the guardian of Israel (Dan 10.13,21; 12.1; Jude 9; Rev 12.7).
midrash, midrashic (pl midrashim; Heb darash, “inquire”) interpretation to draw out meanings from a text beyond the plain sense (see peshat).
Minor Prophets (so-called because compared to the Major Prophets, Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Ezekiel, they are shorter) the books from Hosea through Malachi; in the Tanakh, see Twelve, Book of the.
miqveh a bath designed for ritual immersion.
Mishnah (Heb “oral instruction,” from shanah, “repeat”) the compilation of oral law, edited ca. 200 CE, that is the basis of the Talmud.
mitzvah, mitzvoth (Heb “commandment”) a religious obligation; by extension, any good deed.
MT see Masoretic text.
Muratorian fragment a 7th c. CE Latin text, probably a translation of a Greek text dated to the later 2nd c. ce. It contains the earliest known listing of works considered authoritative to be read in Christian worship; it includes the Wisdom of Solomon and does not include James, Hebrews, 1 and 2 Peter, and (probably) 3 John.
mystery in the NT, a divine truth that is kept hidden by God (see Rom 16.25–26); a revelation about God's plan (Eph 1.9–10).
mystery religion any of various religious groups in the Greek and Roman empires which practiced secret initiation rites.
N
Nachmanides see Ramban.
necropolis (Gk nekros + polis, “city of the dead”) a large cemetery.
Nag Hammadi city in Upper (southern) Egypt where in 1945 were discovered Coptic codices of non-canonical Christian writings including the only complete version of the Gospel of Thomas.
nativity account of a birth, particularly the accounts of Jesus’ birth and infancy in Matthew (1.18–2.23) and Luke (2.1–40).
Nazarene descriptor for Jesus (e.g., Mt 2.23) and his followers (Acts 24.5) probably related to Nazareth, Jesus’ home town.
nazirite one who has taken a vow in accordance with Num 6.1–21: abstention from wine and other intoxicants; refraining from cutting hair; avoiding contact with corpses.
Negev (also Negeb) high plateau south of the central hill country of Israel; borders the Sinai Peninsula.
Neviʾim the Prophets, the second division of the Tanakh.
NT Apocrypha writings—Gospels, letters, apocalyptic visions, acts—in circulation among early communities of Jesus’ followers, but that were not accepted into the Christian canon.
Nicene Creed statement of Christian belief, esp. concerning the Trinity, set forth at the Council of Nicea (325) and augmented at the Council of Constantinople (381).
Noahide laws seven commandments that according to rabbinic Judaism were established for Noah and therefore for all humanity: they prohibit blasphemy, idolatry, sexual immorality, murder, robbery, and eating blood, and they command establishing a system of courts.
nomos see law, Torah.
NRSV New Revised Standard Version Bible translation, published 1989.
O
Odes of Solomon early collection of 42 Christian poems preserved in their entirety in Syriac.
olam biblical Hebrew term for unending (time), extended in postbiblical Hebrew to mean all space, i.e., the world or universe.
Old Latin the Latin translation of the Bible, based on the Septuagint, which was replaced in Christian usage by Jerome's Vulgate.
Old Testament Apocrypha see Deuterocanon.
Oral Torah a synonym for the Mishnah and Talmud. According to rabbinic belief (b. Shabb. 31a), the Oral Torah was given to Moses on Sinai along with the Written Torah.
Origen Origen Adamantius (ca. 184–254), Alexandrian Christian, early biblical interpreter, and theologian. Among his accomplishments were his Hexapla and commentaries on the Bible, many in the form of homilies. He was among the first Christian scholars to study Hebrew.
Ossuary (Lat os, ossum, “bone”), box used as a repository for human bones.
Oxyrhyncus town 120 miles south of Cairo, site where approximately 50 volumes of Greek papyri, including NT and Gnostic texts, from the 3-4th centuries CE were discovered in the late 19th-early 20th centuries.
P
pagan (originally, Lat paganus, a country-dweller) general term for an adherent of traditional polytheistic religions.
Palestine name derived from the Roman designation Provincia Syria Palaestina, “Syro-Palestinian Province,” which replaced Provincia Judaea after the revolt of 135 CE; Palaestina was the Roman spelling of “Philistine,” and the designation was probably intended as a derogation of Jewish claims to the territory.
Palestinian Talmud the Jerusalem Talmud or Talmud Yerushalmi; see Talmud.
Palm Sunday Sunday before Easter, when Jesus enters Jerusalem (Mk 11.8; Mt 21.8; Jn 12.12 mentions palm branches placed on the road Jesus traveled.
panegyric (from Gk panēgyrikos [logos], “[speech] in public”) a speech, or later written text, in high praise of someone or something.
parable saying or story that uses figurative language to evoke a reality that lies beyond the literal.
Paraclete “Advocate” or “Comforter” (Gk paraklētos, “one who stands alongside” [to strengthen or console]) promised by Jesus in John's Gospel to accompany his followers after he ascends. Jn 14.26 connects the Paraclete to the Holy Spirit.
paraenesis moral exhortation.
parallelism characteristic feature of biblical Hebrew poetry in which the second line of a unit in some way echoes the meaning and/or grammatical structure of the first line.
parashah the portion of Torah designated to be read publicly for each week of the year. There are 54 parashiyot, to provide for the maximum possible number of Sabbaths in a year (this maximum can only occur in an intercalated or leap year). In years with fewer Sabbaths, the readings are combined to produce fewer portions. The weekly portion is also sometimes improperly called the Sidrah, “arrangement.”
parousia (Gk “coming”) a secular term for the arrival of a conquering general or emperor, it comes to designate the second coming of Jesus at the eschaton.
parresia Gk “speaking freely, openly, with confidence and boldness.”
paschal pertaining to the Passover.
passim (Lat “here and there”) refers to references scattered throughout a source.
Passion narrative (from Lat passio, “suffer, undergo”) sections of the Gospels narrating Jesus’ Last Supper, arrest, trial, and death: Mt 26–27, Mk 14–15, Lk 22–23, Jn 18–19.
Passover see Pesach.
Passover Haggadah see Haggadah of Pesach.
Pastoral Epistles the NT letters of 1 and 2 Timothy and Titus.
patriarchs the founding fathers (avot) of Israel: Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob.
patristic writers or church fathers, theologians of the early church, such as Clement, Irenaeus, Origen, and Jerome, from the time of the end of the NT period to about the fifth century.
Pax Romana (Lat “Roman peace”) the period from the early first century CE to the end of the second century in the Roman Empire, characterized by absence of major international conflicts and relatively calm internal politics.
peirasmos Gk “trial,” “test,” “temptation.”
Pentateuch (Gk “five scrolls”) the first five books of the Bible—Genesis through Deuteronomy—regarded as a unit; the Torah.
Pentecost (Gk “fiftieth [day]”) Greek name for the Jewish festival of Weeks (Shavuot), which occurs fifty days after Passover. On the Pentecost after Jesus’ crucifixion, according to Acts 2, the Holy Spirit descended on his followers.
pericope (Gk perikopē, “[what is] cut out”) a short passage from a longer text that can be read as a complete unit.
Persian era period of Persian dominion over the Near East, beginning ca. 539 BCE when Cyrus the Great defeated Babylon, and lasting until ca. 333 BCE, the campaigns of Alexander the Great.
Pesach (probably “protection”; others “pass over”) festival commemorating the exodus from Egypt.
peshat (Heb “simple”) the “plain sense” or “contextual sense” of a text, often contrasted with derash, the homiletical meaning.
pesher (pl. pesharim) (Heb “interpretation”) a type of commentary in the Dead Sea Scrolls in which a text that is now part of the Tanakh is understood to be actualized or fulfilled in the interpreter's time.
Pesher Nahum one of the DSS, 4QpNah, consisting of a running commentary on the biblical book of Nahum that interprets it as explicating events from the 1st c. BCE, during the time of its writing.
Peshitta Syriac (a dialect of Aramaic) word for “simple.” It is the name of the Syriac translation of the Bible.
Pesikta Rabbati (Aram pesikta’, “section”) a collection of midrashim that deal with selected passages from the Tanakh, dating from the ninth to thirteenth centuries.
Pesikta de Rav Kahana (Aram pesikta’, “section”) a collection of midrashim that deal with selected passages from the Tanakh, dating from the fifth to seventh centuries.
Petrine pertaining to Peter the Apostle; 1 and 2 Peter are Petrine Epistles.
Pharisees a movement among Jews that followed Oral Torah and extended Jewish practice into all areas of life.
Philo Hellenistic Jewish philosopher and interpreter of Scripture, who lived in Alexandria, Egypt, well known for his allegorical interpretations of the Septuagint (ca. 20 BCE–50 CE).
phylacteries (Gk phylakterion, “amulet,” from phylax, “guard”) see tefillin.
Pirkei Avot (“sayings” or “chapters of the Fathers”) a tractate of the Mishnah that begins by tracing the transmission of the Oral Torah from Moses to the rabbis; emphasizes the strong link between Torah study and ethical behavior; and contains non-legal, moralistic sayings of various rabbis. Pirkei Avot is included in the traditional Jewish prayer book and is part of the liturgical recitation in many communities.
piska a particular note or section in a commentary.
pistis Gk “faith, faithfulness.”
Platonism philosophy based on Plato's teaching that the world of sense experience is essentially an illusion, deriving what reality it has from a correspondence with a true, ultimately real world of Forms.
pleonasm unnecessary word(s), deliberate repetitiveness. “May you be made strong with all strength” (Col 1.11).
pogrom an officially encouraged, organized massacre.
Polycarp, Letter of early Christian letter of instruction, written by Polycarp (ca. 69–ca. 155), bishop of Smyrna, to the church of Philippi (To the Philippians).
Polybius Greek historian (ca. 200 – ca. 118 BCE), whose work Histories covers the period 264-146 BCE, including the rise of Rome to its dominant political position.
poneros Gk “toilsome,” “painful,” “evil”; ho poneros in the Lord's Prayer is lit. “the evil one” (Mt 6.13).
pneumatology study of the role of the Holy Spirit.
Prayer of Nabonidus a Dead Sea Scroll fragment (4Q242), paralleling Dan 4.33–37, but attributing the prayer not to Nebuchadnezzar (as in Daniel) but to Nabonidus (the final king of Babylon) and naming the disease as an ulcer, not loss of reason.
predestination belief that people are fated to be saved or damned.
prefect Roman administrator, sometimes a civil authority and sometimes (or additionally) a commander of a praetorian guard unit.
presbyter (Gk presbyteros, “elder”) an office in the early church.
procurator governor of a Roman province who was appointed by the emperor (for larger provinces the appointment was by the Roman Senate). The title could also be used for officials assisting governors of the larger provinces.
prophet (Gk prophetēs, “speak out” or “speak forth”) the LXX translation of navi (“one who is called”), the standard Heb term for prophet.
Prophets, the see Neviʾim.
Proselyte (Gk “to approach”) a convert.
Psalms of Solomon eighteen Jewish poems from ca. 63 BCE (Pompey's invasion of Jerusalem) concerned with efforts to live an upright life and anticipating a Messiah who brings justice.
pseudepigrapha (Gk “writings with false attributions of authorship”) a diverse group of Jewish or Christian writings, such as Jubilees, that are not included in the Tanakh, the Septuagint, or the NT. They are typically attributed to ancient figures.
pseudonymous written or published under a false name (e.g., Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs).
Pseudo-Phocylides author of Jewish apocryphal work, Sentences (first century BCE to first century CE), written in Greek and containing a series of poetic aphorisms.
Purim festival commemorating the delivery of the Jews in Persia from destruction, as recounted in the book of Esther.
Q
Q (abbreviation of German “Quelle,” “source”) the posited source of passages, especially Jesus’ sayings, common to Matthew and Luke. See synoptic problem.
qal vahomer (Heb “light and heavy”) a rabbinic exegetical argument that moves from a lesser instance to a greater. It is similar to the philosophical argument a fortiori (see e.g., Mt 6.26–30).
Qumran Community settlement near Wadi Qumran at the Dead Sea, most likely composed of Essenes. The Scrolls found in nearby caves are known as the Dead Sea Scrolls.
R
Rabbah lit. “great”; midrashic compilations collecting teachings on books of Scripture
rabbi (Aram “my great one,” “teacher”) a Jewish teacher; eventually, one who studied Torah and its commentaries and offered his own teaching based on that study.
Radak acronym for Rabbi David Kimchi (1160–1235), a prolific biblical commentator and grammarian.
Rambam acronym for Maimonides.
Ramban acronym for Nachmanides (1194–1270), known for his writings on the Torah.
rapture belief of some Christian groups that, before the trials preceding the eschaton, the saved will be taken up into heaven; the belief is based on an interpretation of 1 Thess 5.13–17.
Rashi acronymic name of Rabbi Shlomo Yitzhaki (1040–1105), a medieval French rabbi who compiled important commentaries on the Tanakh and the Talmud.
Rav a third century Babylonian amora whose real name was ʾAbba ben ʾAivu. “Rav” means “great” and is a tribute to the regard in which he was held by his students at the academy in Sura, which he founded. Rav and Mar Samuel are seen as the main teachers in the tradition that became the Babylonian Talmud. Rav's specialty was issues relating to religious law and interpretation.
realized eschatology the view, primarily associated with the Gospel of John, that salvation and damnation are not future events but are realized in one's response to Jesus.
redaction criticism determining how a writer (e.g., Matthew, Luke) edits received material.
resident alien a foreigner with legal rights living in Israel, sometimes called the “stranger” or “sojourner.”
resurrection return from the dead in bodily from (as opposed to immortality of the soul). Jewish belief promulgated by the Pharisees and affirmed in the Mishnah (m. Sanh. 10.1).
revelation (Lat “remove the veil,” translating Gk apokalypsis) insight granted to a human being by a heavenly being.
rhetoric (Gk rhetor, “speaker,” “orator”) the art or study of persuasive speech or writing.
Roman Period the period from 63 BCE onwards, marking the beginning of Roman rule of Judea.
Rosh Chodesh (Heb “new moon”) a festival celebrating the beginning of the month.
Rosh Ha-Shanah (Heb “head [i.e., beginning] of the year”) the fall New Year in the Jewish calendar, 1(–2) Tishri.
ruah Heb “spirit,” “breath,” “wind” (Gk pneuma; see pneumatology).
S
Sabbath see Shabbat.
Sadducees Jewish movement that opposed the Pharisees in rejecting the Oral Law and belief in resurrection; they were based primarily in Jerusalem and in relation to the Temple.
Samaritan Pentateuch text of the Torah used by the Samaritans. This text disagrees with the Masoretic text at several points.
Samaritans according to Jewish and Christian (but not Samaritan) tradition, descendants of the population of Israel as well as other peoples brought into the region as a result of the Assyrian conquest of 722 BCE. The Samaritans etymologize their name from from Heb shomrim, “guardians [of the law]” and worship on Mount Gerizim in Samaria; their canon consists of the Pentateuch only.
Sanhedrin (Gk syn-hedra, “seated together,” that is, “in council”) an assembly of Jewish religious leaders who could make legal determinations. While the NT sometimes seems to indicate that the Sanhedrin (e.g., “whole council,” Mt 26.59) is a formally constituted, continuing body, it is more likely to have been an occasional assemblage called together as needed, with varying membership. “Sanhedrin” is also the title of a tractate of the Mishnah dealing with law courts.
Satan (Heb “accuser,” “opponent,” “adversary”) title of a heavenly functionary whose task was to test humans (Job 1-2). In later writings, a proper name for a supernatural being opposed to God (e.g., Mk 3.23).
scribe one who could write and interpret documents.
Second Baruch apocalyptic writing (late first or early second century CE) reacting to the destruction of the Temple in 70 ce. 2 Baruch is included in the canon of the Syriac Orthodox Church, but not in any other Christian or Jewish canon.
Second Temple the Temple constructed ca. 520–516 BCE by the returning exiles; it continued and expanded until its destruction by the Romans in 70 ce.
seder (Heb “order”) the ritual Passover meal.
Seder Olam (“order of the world”) a rabbinic history of the world and the Jewish people up to the second century ce.
Sefer ha-Zikronot a Masoretic concordance labored on for twenty years by Elijah Levita (1468–1549). He was a grammarian, Masorite, and poet. The work is in the Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris.
Seleucids the rulers of Syria and surrounding areas after Alexander the Great's death.
Selihot penitential prayers.
semeion Gk “sign”; used especially in John's Gospel (e.g., 2.11) to describe Jesus’ acts of power.
Septuagint (abbreviated LXX) main ancient Greek translation of the Hebrew Scriptures. The Septuagint was translated over a lengthy period beginning probably with the Torah in the third century BCE. It contains additional works, grouped in NRSV as the Apocryphal/Deuterocanonical Books, most of which were originally written in Greek; some form of it was the Bible of early Christians.
Serek ha-Yahad one of the DSS, “The Community Rule,” 1QS, detailing the regulations by which the Qumran community will conduct itself at various times.
Shabbat (Heb “cessation”) the Sabbath day. The church preserved the day of rest but moved it from Saturday to Sunday, both to commemorate the proclamation of Jesus’ resurrection and to distinguish its practices from that of the synagogue.
Shammai (50 BCE – 30 CE) see Hillel.
Shavuot (Heb) the festival of “Weeks” (also “Pentecost,” Gk for “fiftieth” [day]), the spring harvest, occurring fifty days (seven full weeks) after Pesach.
shekhinah a post-biblical term for the “dwelling” or “presence” of God with Israel; by extension, the divine manifestation in the community's life or the sense of divine immanence within the world.
Shem, ha-Shem “name” or “the Name,” a circumlocution for the tetragrammaton (see Deut 28.58).
Shema (Heb “hear”) the first word, used as a title, of the exhortation (Deut 6.4), “Hear, O Israel, the LORD our God is one LORD” (or, “the LORD our God, the LORD is one”); also the name of the best-known prayer in Judaism, comprised of Deut 6.4–9; 11.13–21; Num 15.37–41.
Shemonah Esrei see Amidah.
Sheol the abode of the dead.
Shepherd of Hermas second-century Christian apocalypse.
Shulchan Arukh (Heb “set table”) the authoritative compendium of Jewish Law, compiled by Yosef Karo and first published in Venice in 1565.
Sibylline Oracles collection of Jewish and Christian texts (dating perhaps from the second century BCE to the first few centuries CE) pseudonymously attributed to the sibyls, Greek prophetesses.
Sicarii (Lat “dagger men”) a term for the Jewish movement in Roman Judea which advocated armed rebellion; see zealot.
Siddur (Heb “order”) the Jewish prayer book.
Sifra (Heb “writing [of]”) a rabbinic commentary on Leviticus.
Sifre (Heb “writings [of]”) rabbinic commentaries on Numbers and Deuteronomy.
Signs source a posited source used by the author of John's Gospel (Gk semeia, sing. semeion).
Sinaiticus (so-called because it was discovered in St. Catherine's monastery in the Sinai Peninsula) a fourth-century codex containing the entire NT, about half of the Septuagint, the Epistle of Barnabas, and parts of the Shepherd of Hermas.
Son of Man a Hebraism (from ben adam, e.g., Ps 8.4 [Heb v. 5]; Ezek 2.1) meaning “human being, mortal” or an Aramaism (bar enosh, e.g., Dan 7.13). Jesus’ self-designation in the Gosples (e.g., Mk 2.10,28).
Sophia Greek term for “wisdom” (cf. Heb hochmah), sometimes regarded as a manifestation of the divine presence.
soteriology (Gk sōtēr, “savior”) the study of views of salvation.
source criticism effort to discover the written sources behind a text.
Spiritual gifts see charisma
Stoics Greek philosophers who taught that emotions should be controlled by reason.
Sukkot (Heb “booths”) autumn harvest pilgrimage festival, also known as Tabernacles, during which it is customary, following Lev 23.42–43, to dwell in temporary booths.
suffering servant the figure in Isa 52.13–53.11 who bears the disease, punishment, or sins of others. The passage taken by Jesus’ followers (e.g., Mt 8.17, in the context of Jesus’ healing ministry; Acts 8.27–35, referring to Jesus’ death) to be a prophecy of his life; Jewish tradition typically regards the servant as the people Israel.
Symmachus a second- to third-century translator of the Bible into Greek, see Hexapla.
synagogue (Gk “coming together with”) an assembly; a congregation; later a building where the community met.
Synoptic Gospels the Gospels of Matthew, Mark, and Luke. “Synoptic” means “view together,” and is applied to these writings because they, unlike John, present basically the same material in the same order.
synoptic problem The determination of the literary relationship among the Gospels of Matthew, Mark, and Luke. According to the most widely held theory, Matthew and Luke relied on Mark and on another document, Q (now lost), that contained mostly sayings of Jesus. In addition, Matthew and Luke each had their own sources (M and L).
Syriac eastern form of Aramaic.
Syrohexapla see Hexapla.
T
tabernacle portable sanctuary used by the Israelites in the wilderness, as described in Exodus 25–30 and 35–40.
Tacitus Roman historian (ca. 56 – ca. 117 CE); he wrote works covering 14 – 70 ce.
Taheb in Samaritan teaching, the one who will restore the people to their land and kingdom, analogous to Messiah.
talion see lex talionis.
tallit originally “a garment,” also a four-cornered fringed shawl worn during prayer; the tallit gadol, “large tallit,” in contrast to tallit katan, “small tallit,” is worn throughout the day beneath the clothing by observant Jewish men (see Num 15.38–39; Deut 22.12).
Talmud (Heb “teaching”) the title of the two great collections of rabbinic teaching, the Jerusalem Talmud or Yerushalmi and the Babylonian Talmud or Bavli. The Talmuds consist of comments on, and extensions of, the Mishnah as well as information on a wide range of topics.
Tanakh acronym or abbreviation formed from the beginning letters of the three divisions of the Hebrew Bible: Torah, Neviʾim, Ketuvim.
tanna (pl. tannaim; adj. tannaitic) (Aram/Heb tanna/shana, “repeat”) rabbis who contributed to and compiled the Mishnah, from ca. 70 to 200 ce.
Tanhuma named for a rabbi often cited in this text, a midrash compilation collected and printed by Salomon Buber in 1885.
Targum (pl Targumim) Aramaic translations of books of the Tanakh. There are two main texts on the Torah: Targum Onkelos and Targum Yerushalmi or the Jerusalem Targum (sometimes called Targum [Pseudo-]Jonathan). There is also Targum Jonathan to the prophets, as well as targumim to other biblical books such as Ruth and Esther.
Targum Neofiti the most complete copy (450 folios) of Targum Yerushalmi.
Teacher of Righteousness (Heb moreh ha-tzedek) presumed founder of the community at Qumran (see e.g., CD 1.9–11).
tefillin small black leather boxes containing biblical passages from Ex 13.1–10; 13.11–16; Deut 6.4–9; 11.13–21. Two are worn during weekday morning prayer: one on the head and one on the arm (see e.g., Deut 6.8). Also called “phylacteries.” Many copies were found among the Dead Sea Scrolls.
Temple the central place of worship for Israelites and then Jews in Jerusalem, referring either to the First Temple built, according to biblical tradition, by Solomon, or the post-exilic Second Temple rebuilt and enlarged by Herod the Great.
Temple tax Jewish males annually paid a half-shekel tax for the Jerusalem Temple (Ex 30.11–16; Neh 10.33; cf. t. Ketub. 13.3).
Tertullian Quintus Septimius Florens Tertullianus (ca. 160–ca. 225), early Christian theologian and exegete. He opposed the views of Marcion, who advocated discarding the “Old Testament” in Christian use.
Testament of Abraham pseudepigraphical text dating from the first or second century CE, depicting an encounter between the archangel Michael and Abraham, a vision of judgment in the context of the Abraham's death and the ascent of Abraham's soul to heaven.
Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs the purported last words of the twelve sons of Jacob (separate texts include the Testaments of Benjamin, Judah, Issachar, Levi, and Simeon). Although it may contain material from the second century BCE, as a whole it dates from the second century ce.
Testimonia (1) a Dead Sea Scroll (4Q175), consisting of a series of quotations from Exodus, Numbers, Deuteronomy, and Joshua, all of which may be of messianic interest; (2) any collection of quotations taken as messianic predictions.
tetragrammaton (Gk “four letters”) the Hebrew divine name, YHWH.
textual criticism the effort to establish, by scholarly assessment of manuscript copies and other sources, the most original and accurate version of a text
textus receptus (Lat “received text”) the standard text in a tradition. For the Hebrew text the “received text” is the Masoretic text, particularly that in the Rabbinic Bible (Miqraot Gedolot) in the 1525 edition published in Venice. For the NT (Gk) text, the Stephanus edition of 1550 became known as the received text and was the basis of the King James NT. Most modern NT translations use a critical text based on comparison of numerous manuscripts.
theodicy the effort to justify divine goodness in the face of human suffering.
Theodotion (ca. second century CE) a translator of the Bible into Greek and reviser of the Septuagint.
theophany (Gk “appearance of god”) a temporary appearance or manifestation of a divine being.
Therapeutae a Jewish community of men and women in Egypt, described by Philo, who practiced temperance, asceticism, and contemplation.
Thomas, Gospel of an early collection of sayings attributed to Jesus. Some sayings resemble those in the canonical Gospels, but other speak of salvation through knowledge (rather than through the death and resurrection of Jesus) and of escaping the material world.
Thucydides Greek historian (ca. 460 – ca. 400 BCE), who wrote the History of the Peloponnesian War, the conflict between Athens and Sparta in the 5th c. BCE.
Torah (Heb “teaching,” “instruction”) the first division of the Tanakh (the Pentateuch), and, more broadly, Jewish teaching. See Law.
Tosefta (Aram “addition”) an early Jewish compilation of the Oral Torah, of uncertain provenance and date, which follows the arrangement of the Mishnah.
transfiguration (Gk metamorphoō, “change form”) name for the event recounted in Mk 9.2–8; Mt 17.1–8; Lk 9.28–36, in which Jesus’ appearance is transformed (see Ex 34.29) and where he speaks with Moses and Elijah.
tribulation (Gk thlipsis, “affliction”) the period of earthly oppression before Jesus returns in glory (Rev 7.14, there translated “ordeal”).
Trinity Christian doctrine that God, though one in Being, is comprised of three Persons (Father, Son, and Spirit). See Nicene Creed.
Twelve, Book of the Jewish designation for the Minor Prophets (Hosea through Malachi).
typology (Gk typos, the raised design on a seal for imprinting in wax) the understanding of persons or events, especially in the NT, as the successors to or completion of earlier biblical “types,” such as the Exodus (1 Cor 10.1–6); Solomon (Lk 11.31) or narratives like that of Jonah (Lk 11.29–30).
tzedaqah Heb “righteousness” and, by extension, “alms.”
tzitzit fringes on the tallit or garment (Num 15.37–40) as a reminder of God's commandments (e.g., Mt 9.20).
U
uncircumcised, the Gentiles (Rom 4.9; Gal 2.7).
V
Vaticanus (so called because it is housed in the Vatican library) a codex of the Greek Bible (Old and New Testaments) that dates from the fourth century.
vaticinium ex eventu The term applied to a passage in the Prophets or the Gospels which has the form of a prediction but it is in fact written in the knowledge of the event having occurred (e.g., 2 Pet 3.3–4).
vice list a list of sins for the faithful to avoid. See Rom 1.29–31; 1 Cor 5.11; 6.9–10; 1 Tim 1.9–10; 2 Tim 3.2–5; Tob 4.12; Jub. 7.20.
virgin birth tradition that Mary conceived Jesus by the Holy Spirit and apart from sexual intercourse (see Mt 1.18-25; Lk 1.26-38).
Vulgate (Lat “common”) Latin translation of the Bible by Jerome, completed 405. In the Middle Ages the Vulgate became the standard translation of the Bible for Western Christians. With the Protestant Reformation, its authority was questioned, but was reaffirmed by the Roman Catholic Church at the Council of Trent (1546).
W
Weeks, Feast of Shavuot or Pentecost.
works-righteousness description of a religion that emphasizes that good deeds are required to earn God's grace; a false view of Judaism sometimes found in Christian sources.
Writings see Ketuvim.
X
Yerushalmi see Talmud.
YHWH the name of God, which conventionally remains unpronounced and is represented by the Hebrew letters yod-he-vav-he (the tetragrammaton). In standard English translations, YHWH is represented by the word LORD.
yetzer ha-ra/yetzer ha-tov Heb “inclination to evil/inclination to good.”
Yizkor (lit. “remembrance”) A memorial service recited as part of the Jewish prayer service four times during the year.
Yom Kippur (Heb “day of atonement”) solemn fast observed on 10 Tishri (see Lev 23.26–32). The observance focuses on personal and communal repentance.
Z
Zadokites proponents of re-establishing the priesthood of the Jerusalem Temple as consisting of descendants of Zadok (see 2 Sam 15; 1 Kings 1; 2 Chr 31.10; Neh 11.10–11). The name Sadducee may be derived from Zadok.
zealot an advocate of armed resistance in Roman rule.
Zion the name of the fortified hill within Jerusalem and thus, by extension, an alternative name for Jerusalem.
Zohar (“Splendor”) kabbalistic writing of the late thirteenth century, partly the work of Moshe de Leon (d. 1305); it is attributed to the second-century rabbinic sage Simeon bar Yohai.