THE THIRD BOOK OF MOSES CALLED
LEVITICUS

Title

The original Hebrew title of this third book of the law is taken from the first word, translated “and He called.” Several OT books derive their Hebrew names in the same manner (e.g., Genesis, “In the beginning”; Exodus, “Now these are the names”). The title Leviticus comes from the Latin Vulgate version of the Greek OT (LXX) Levitikon meaning “matters of the Levites” (25:32, 33). While the book addresses issues of the Levites’ responsibilities, much more significantly, all the priests are instructed in how they are to assist the people in worship, and the people are informed about how to live a holy life. New Testament writers quote the Book of Leviticus more than fifteen times.

Author and Date

Authorship and date issues are resolved by the concluding verse of the book, “These are the commandments which the LORD commanded Moses for the children of Israel on Mount Sinai” (27:34; cf. 7:38; 25:1; 26:46). The fact that God gave these laws to Moses (cf. 1:1) appears fifty-six times in Leviticus’ twenty-seven chapters. In addition to recording detailed prescriptions, the book chronicles several historical accounts relating to the laws (see chs. 8–10; 24:10–23). The Exodus occurred in 1445 B.C. (see Introduction to Exodus: Author and Date) and the tabernacle was finished one year later (Ex. 40:17). Leviticus picks up the record at that point, probably revealed in the first month (Abib/Nisan) of the second year after the Exodus. The Book of Numbers begins after that in the second month (Ziv; cf. Num. 1:1).

Background and Setting

Before the year that Israel camped at Mt. Sinai: (1) the presence of God’s glory had never formally resided among the Israelites; (2) a central place of worship, like the tabernacle, had never existed; (3) a structured and regulated set of sacrifices and feasts had not been given; and (4) a high priest, a formal priesthood, and a cadre of tabernacle workers had not been appointed. As Exodus concluded, features one and two had been accomplished, thereby requiring that elements three and four be inaugurated, which is what Leviticus provides. Exodus 19:6 called Israel to be “a kingdom of priests and a holy nation.” Leviticus in turn is God’s instruction for His newly redeemed people, teaching them how to worship and obey Him.

Israel had, up to that point, only the historical records of the patriarchs from which to gain their knowledge of how to worship and live before their God. Having been slaves for centuries in Egypt, the land of a seemingly infinite number of gods, their concept of worship and the godly life was severely distorted. Their tendency to hold on to polytheism and pagan ritual is witnessed in the wilderness wanderings, e.g., when they worshiped the golden calf (cf. Ex. 32). God would not permit them to worship in the ways of their Egyptian neighbors, nor would He tolerate Egyptian ideas about morality and sin. With the instructions in Leviticus, the priests could lead Israel in worship appropriate to the Lord.

Even though the book contains a great deal of law, it is presented in a historical format. Immediately after Moses supervised the construction of the tabernacle, God came in glory to dwell there; this marked the close of the Book of Exodus (40:34–38). Leviticus begins with God calling Moses from the tabernacle and ends with God’s commands to Moses in the form of binding legislation. Israel’s King had occupied His palace (the tabernacle), instituted His law, and declared Himself a covenant partner with His subjects.

No geographical movement occurs in this book. The people of Israel stay at the foot of Sinai, the mountain where God came down to give His law (25:1; 26:46; 27:34). They were still there one month later when the record of Numbers began (cf. Num. 1:1).

Historical and Theological Themes

The core ideas around which Leviticus develops are the holy character of God and the will of God for Israel’s holiness. God’s holiness, mankind’s sinfulness, sacrifice, and God’s presence in the sanctuary are the book’s most common themes. With a clear, authoritative tone, the book sets forth instruction toward personal holiness at the urging of God (11:44, 45; 19:2; 20:7, 26; cf. 1 Pet. 1:14–16). Matters pertaining to Israel’s life of faith tend to focus on purity in ritual settings, but not to the exclusion of concerns regarding Israel’s personal purity. In fact, there is a continuing emphasis on personal holiness in response to the holiness of God (cf. this emphasis in chs. 17–27). On over 125 occasions, Leviticus indicts mankind for uncleanness and/or instructs on how to be purified. The motive for such holiness is stated in two repeated phrases: “I am the LORD” and “I am holy.” These are used over fifty times. See note on 11:44, 45.

The theme of the conditional Mosaic covenant resurfaces throughout the book, but particularly in chapter 26. This contract for the new nation not only details the consequences for obedience or disobedience to the covenant stipulations, but it does so in a manner scripted for determining Israel’s history. One cannot help but recognize prophetic implications in the punishments for disobedience; they sound like the events of the much later Babylonian deportment, captivity, and subsequent return to the land (c. 538 B.C.) almost 900 years after Moses wrote Leviticus. The eschatological implications for Israel’s disobedience will not conclude until Messiah comes to introduce His kingdom and end the curses of Leviticus 26 and Deuteronomy 28 (cf. Zech. 14:11).

The five sacrifices and offerings were symbolic. Their design was to allow the truly penitent and thankful worshiper to express faith in and love for God by the observance of these rituals. When the heart was not penitent and thankful, God was not pleased with the ritual. (cf. Amos 5:21–27). The offerings were burnt, symbolizing the worshiper’s desire to be purged of sin and sending up the fragrant smoke of true worship to God. The myriad of small details in the execution of the rituals was intended to teach exactness and precision that would extend to the way the people obeyed the moral and spiritual laws of God and the way they revered every facet of His Word. See notes on 11:1–47; 11:44, 45; 13:2.

Interpretive Challenges

Leviticus is both a manual for the worship of God in Israel and a theology of old covenant ritual. Comprehensive understanding of the ceremonies, laws, and ritual details prescribed in the book is difficult today because Moses assumed a certain context of historical understanding. Once the challenge of understanding the detailed prescriptions has been met, the question arises as to how believers in the church should respond to them, since the NT clearly abrogates OT ceremonial law (cf. Acts 10:1–16; Col. 2:16, 17), the levitical priesthood (cf. 1 Pet. 2:9; Rev. 1:6; 5:10; 20:6), and the sanctuary (cf. Matt. 27:51), as well as instituting the new covenant (cf. Matt. 26:28; 2 Cor. 3:6–18; Heb. 7–10).

Rather than try to practice the old ceremonies or look for some deeper spiritual significance in them, the focus should be on the holy and divine character behind them. This may partly be the reason that explanations which Moses often gave in the prescriptions for cleanness offer greater insight into the mind of God than do the ceremonies themselves. The spiritual principles in which the rituals were rooted are timeless because they are embedded in the nature of God. The NT makes it clear that from Pentecost forward (cf. Acts 2), the church is under the authority of the new covenant, not the old covenant (cf. Heb. 7–10).

The interpreter is challenged to compare features of this book with NT writers who present types or analogies based on the tabernacle and the ceremonial aspects of the law, so as to teach valuable lessons about Christ and new covenant reality. Though the ceremonial law served only as a shadow of the reality of Christ and His redemptive work (Heb. 10:1), excessive typology is to be rejected. Only that which NT writers identify specifically as types of Christ should be so designated (cf. 1 Cor. 5:7, “Christ our Passover”).

The most profitable study in Leviticus is that which yields truth in the understanding of sin, guilt, substitutionary death, and atonement by focusing on features which are not explained or illustrated elsewhere in OT Scripture. Later OT authors, and especially NT writers, build on the basic understanding of these matters provided in Leviticus. The sacrificial features of Leviticus point to their ultimate, one-time fulfillment in the substitutionary death of Jesus Christ (Heb. 9:11–22).

Leviticus 1–16 explains how to have personal access to God through appropriate worship, while Leviticus 17–27 details how to be spiritually acceptable to God through an obedient walk.

I. LAWS PERTAINING TO SACRIFICE (1:1–7:38)

1:1–7:38 This section provides laws pertaining to sacrifice. For the first time in Israel’s history, a well-defined set of sacrifices was given to them, although people had offered sacrifices since the time of Abel and Cain (cf. Gen. 4:3, 4). This section contains instructions for the people (1:1–6:7) and the priests (6:8–7:38). For a comparison with the millennial kingdom sacrifices, see notes on Ezekiel 45 and 46.

A. Legislation for the Laity (1:1–6:7)

1:1–6:7 God had taken the nation at its word, “All that the LORD has spoken we will do” (Ex. 19:8; 24:3–8), and gave detailed instructions as to how they were to sacrifice to Him. Five sacrifices were outlined: the first three were voluntary, the last two compulsory. They were: (1) burnt offering (1:1–17); (2) grain offering (2:1–16); (3) peace offering (3:1–17); (4) sin offering (4:1–5:13); and (5) trespass offering (5:14–6:7). All these offerings were forms of worship to God, to give expression of the penitent and thankful heart. Those who were truly God’s by faith gave these offerings with an attitude of worship; for the rest, they were external rituals only.

1. Burnt offerings (1:1–17)

1:1 Now the LORD called to Moses. Leviticus begins where Exodus left off (see Introduction: Author and Date; Background and Setting). No sooner did the glory cloud come down to rest on the tabernacle in the concluding verses of Exodus than God instructed Moses with the content in Leviticus. The question of how to use the tabernacle in worship is answered here by an audible voice from the divine glory over the ark in the Holy of Holies (cf. Ex. 40:34; Num. 7:89; Ps. 80:1). tabernacle of meeting. This is so named since it was the place where Israel would gather to meet the Lord (cf. Ex. 25:8, 22; 26:1–37). See Exodus 25–32 for a detailed description of the tabernacle.

1:2 Speak to the children of Israel. This is essential revelation, with reference to their spiritual life, for all the descendants of Jacob, who was also called Israel (cf. Gen. 32:28). When any one of you brings. These were completely voluntary and freewill offerings with no specific number or frequency given (1:3). The regulation excluded horses, dogs, pigs, camels, and donkeys, which were used in pagan sacrifices, as well as rabbits, deer, beasts, and birds of prey. The sacrifice had to be from the offerer’s herd or he had to purchase it. an offering. The Pharisees manipulated this simple concept so that adult children could selfishly withhold the material goods which would help their parents, under the guise of Corban, that it was dedicated to the Lord (cf. Mark 7:8–13). herd . . . flock. These terms refer to the cattle (1:3), and sheep or goats (1:10), respectively. Only domestic animals could be sacrificed.

1:3–17 See 6:8–13 for the priests’ instructions. The burnt offerings were the first sacrifices revealed because these were the ones to be most frequently offered: every morning and evening (Num. 28:1–8), every Sabbath (Num. 28:9, 10), the first day of each month (Num. 28:11–15), and at the special feasts (Num. 28:16–29:40). This offering signified voluntary and complete dedication and consecration to the Lord. It was an offering of repentance for sins committed, with the desire to be purged from the guilt of sinful acts. Designed to demonstrate the sinner’s penitence and obedience, it indicated his dedication to the worship of God. The most costly animal was mentioned first, the least costly last. The singing of psalms later became a part of this ritual (cf. Pss. 4; 5; 40; 50; 66).

1:3–9 This section describes the sacrifice of bulls (1:5).

1:3 burnt sacrifice. This offering is so called because it required that the animal be completely consumed by the fire, except for the feathers of a bird (1:16) or the skin of the bull, which went to the priest (1:6; 7:8). a male without blemish. Since no animal with any deformity or defect was permitted, the priests would inspect each animal, perhaps using a method which the Egyptians employed in their sacrifices, calling for all inspected and approved animals to have a certificate attached to the horns and sealed with wax. A male without blemish was required, as it was the choicest offering of the flock. at the door . . . before the LORD. This entrance to the courtyard around the tabernacle where the altar of burnt offering stood (Ex. 40:6) would place the person offering a sacrifice on the north side of the altar (cf. 1:11). God’s presence in the cloud rested upon the mercy seat of the ark in the Holy of Holies inside the tabernacle proper (see note on 1:1 ). The offering was brought to and offered before the Lord, not before man.

1:4 put his hand on the head. This symbolic gesture pictured the transfer of the sacrificer’s sin to the sacrificial animal and was likely done with a prayer of repentance and request for forgiveness (cf. Ps. 51:18, 19). on his behalf. This was a substitutionary sacrifice that prefigured the ultimate substitute—Jesus Christ (cf. Is. 53; see note on 2 Cor.5:21 ). make atonement. The word means “cover.” The psalmist defines it by saying, “Blessed is he whose transgression is forgiven, whose sin is covered” (Ps. 32:1). Theologically, the “atonement” of the OT covered sin only temporarily, but it did not eliminate sin or later judgment (Heb. 10:4). The one-time sacrifice of Jesus Christ fully atoned for sin, thus satisfying God’s wrath forever and insuring eternal salvation (cf. Heb. 9:12; 1 John 2:2), even to those who put saving faith in God for their redemption before Christ’s death on the cross (cf. Rom. 3:25, 26; Heb. 9:15).

1:5 He shall kill. Making vivid and dramatic the consequences of sin, the person offering the sacrifice killed and butchered the animal (cf. v. 6). Aaron’s sons. This refers to the immediate descendants of Aaron, i.e., Nadab, Abihu, Eleazar, and Ithamar (cf. Ex. 28:1). In the beginning, there were five priests, including Aaron, who served as the high priest. shall bring . . . sprinkle the blood. The priest had to collect the blood in a basin and then offer it to God as a sacrifice to indicate that a life had been taken, i.e., death occurred (cf. 17:11, 14). The price of sin is always death (cf. Gen. 2:17; Rom. 6:23). the altar. The altar of burnt offering (cf. Ex. 27:1–8; 38:1–7), which is in the courtyard outside of the tabernacle proper. The prototype experience, before the tabernacle was constructed, is remembered in Exodus 24:1–8.

1:9 wash. This allowed the person sacrificing to cleanse the animal of excrement and, thus, make it clean. a sweet aroma. The pleasant smell of burning meat signified the sacrifice of obedience which was pleasing to the Lord. While the costly ritual recognized God’s anger for sin committed (cf. 1:13, 17), the penitent heart behind the sacrifice made it acceptable. That was far more significant than the sacrifice itself (cf. Gen. 8:21; 1 Sam. 15:23). This is the first of three freewill offerings to please the Lord; cf. the grain offering (2:2) and the peace offering (3:5).

1:10–13 of the flocks. This section describes the sacrifice of sheep and goats.

1:11 north side. This placed the person sacrificing in front of the tabernacle door (cf. 1:3).

1:14–17 of birds. This section describes the sacrifice of birds. God does not ask the poor to bring the same burnt offering as those financially well off because the relative cost to the one sacrificing was an important factor. This was the kind of sacrifice brought by Joseph and Mary on the eighth day after Christ’s birth for Mary’s purification (cf. 12:8; Luke 2:22–24).

1:15 The priest . . . wring off. Unlike the livestock being killed by the one offering the sacrifice, the bird was killed by the priest.

1:16 crop . . . feathers. This refers to the neck or gullet of a bird, where food was stored. east side . . . place for ashes. This was the closest side to the entrance of the tabernacle compound and provided for the easiest removal of the ashes outside (cf. 6:10, 11).

2. Grain offerings (2:1–16)

2:1–16 See 6:14–23 for the priests’ instructions. The grain offering signified homage and thanksgiving to God as a voluntary offering which was offered along with a burnt offering and a drink offering at the appointed sacrifices (cf. Num. 28:1–15). Three variations were prescribed: (1) uncooked flour (2:1–3); (2) baked flour (2:4–13); or (3) roasted firstfruit grain from the harvest (2:14–16). This was the only non-animal sacrifice of the five and shows that there was a place for offering from the fruit of the soil (as in the case of Cain in Genesis 4).

2:1–3 fine flour. The first variation consisted of uncooked flour whose quality of “fine” paralleled the “unblemished” animal in the burnt offering. A portion of this offering was to support the priests (v. 3). Like the drink offering or “libation,” the grain offering was added to the burnt offering (cf. Num. 28:1–15).

2:1 oil. See note on 2:4. frankincense. See note on 2:15.

2:2 handful. Unlike the whole burnt offering (1:9), only a representative or memorial portion was given to the Lord. sweet aroma. See note on 1:9.

2:3 Aaron’s and his sons’. Unlike the burnt offering (cf. 1:9, 13, 17), this offering supplies provision for the priests. most holy. This was unique from the others because it was not limited to God alone, like the burnt offering, nor eaten in part by the worshiper, like the peace offering. Only the priest could eat the portion not burned (see 7:9). The sin offering (6:17, 25) and the trespass offering (6:17; 7:1) are also called “most holy.”

2:4–13 This variation of the grain offering involved baked flour. The kinds of containers discussed are: (1) oven (2:4); (2) griddle (2:5, 6); and (3) covered pan (2:7–10). The manner of preparation is discussed in 2:11–13.

2:4 unleavened cakes. The notion of leaven as a symbol representing the presence of sin remains valid beyond the context of the Passover and continues to the NT (cf. Matt. 16:6; 1 Cor. 5:6, 7). anointed with oil. Anointing is usually reserved for human appointments by God. Here, it was applied to the preparation of a holy sacrifice, set apart as a memorial to the Lord.

2:11 This applies to the offerings of 2:4–10, all of which were to be burned on the altar. no leaven nor any honey. Both yeast and honey were edible foods, but were never to be used with a grain offering, since both could induce fermentation, which symbolized sin (see note on 2:4 ).

2:12 This applies to the offering of 2:14–16, which was not to be burned on the altar, but rather roasted by the worshiper (v. 14) before going to the tabernacle.

2:13 the salt of the covenant. This was included in all of the offerings in 2:4–10, 14–16 since salt was emblematic of permanence or loyalty to the covenant.

2:14 firstfruits. These would be offered at the Feast of Firstfruits (23:9–14) and the Feast of Weeks (23:15–22).

2:15 frankincense. A gum resin with a pungent, balsamic odor, used for the incense in the tabernacle sacrifices (cf. Ex. 30:34).

3. Peace offerings (3:1–17)

3:1–17 See 7:11–36 for the priests’ instructions. The peace offering symbolizes the peace and fellowship between the true worshiper and God (as a voluntary offering). It was the third freewill offering resulting in a sweet aroma to the Lord (3:5), which served as the appropriate corollary to the burnt offering of atonement and the grain offering of consecration and dedication. It symbolized the fruit of redemptive reconciliation between a sinner and God (cf. 2 Cor. 5:18).

3:1–5 This pertains to cattle, i.e., the herd, used in the peace offering.

3:1, 2 male or female. This is similar to the burnt offering in manner of presentation (cf. 1:3–9), but different in that a female was allowed.

3:4 the fat. All of the fat was dedicated to the Lord (3:3–5, 9–11, 14–16).

3:6–11 This pertains to sheep used in the peace offering.

3:11 as food. The sacrifice was intended to symbolize a meal between God and the one offering it, where peace and friendship were epitomized by sharing that meal together.

3:12–16 This pertains to goats used in the peace offering.

3:17 neither fat nor blood. The details given in the chapter distinctly define which fat was to be burned and not eaten, so that whatever adhered to other parts or was mixed with them might be eaten. As with many facets of the Mosaic legislation, there were underlying health benefits also.

4:1–6:7 The sin (4:1–5:13) and trespass (5:14–6:7) offerings differed from the previous three in that the former were voluntary and these were compulsory. The sin offering differed from the trespass offering in that the former involved iniquity where restitution was not possible, while in the latter it was possible.

4. Sin offerings (4:1–5:13)

4:1–5:13 See 6:24–30 for the priests’ instructions. The sin offering atoned for sins committed unknowingly where restitution was impossible. This was a required sacrifice, as was the trespass offering (5:14–6:7). Unintentional sins of commission (4:1–35) and unintentional sins of omission (5:1–13) are discussed. Leviticus 4:1–35 indicates the person committing the sin: (1) the high priest (vv. 3–12); (2) the congregation (vv. 13–21); (3) a leader (vv. 22–26); or (4) an individual (vv. 27–35). Leviticus 5:1–13 unfolds according to the animal sacrificed: (1) lamb/goat (vv. 1–6); (2) bird (vv. 7–10); or (3) flour (vv. 11–13).

4:2 unintentionally. The intended meaning is to stray into a sinful situation, but not necessarily to be taken completely by surprise. Numbers 15:30, 31 illustrates the defiant attitude of intentional sin. ought not . . . does any. Sins of commission.

4:3–12 Sacrifices for the sin of the high priest are given.

4:3 the anointed priest. See Exodus 29:29 and Leviticus 16:32, which defined this person as the high priest. bringing guilt on the people. Only the high priest, due to his representative position, was capable of this type of guilt infusion. For example, Achan had brought about the defeat of Israel when he held back the spoils, but the entire nation was not executed, as was his family (cf. Josh. 7:22–26).

4:5 to the tabernacle. He actually went into the Holy Place.

4:6 seven times. The number of completion or perfection, indicating the nature of God’s forgiveness (Ps. 103:12). the veil of the sanctuary. The veil marked the entry into the very presence of God in the Holy of Holies.

4:7 altar of sweet incense. See Exodus 30:1–10. This altar was in the tabernacle proper before the veil. It was so close to the ark that Hebrews speaks of it as actually being in the Holy of Holies (Heb. 9:4). This altar was also sprinkled with blood on the Day of Atonement (Ex. 30:10). altar . . . burnt offering. The altar in the courtyard on which blood was normally splashed.

4:10 peace offering. See note on 3:1–17.

4:11 offal. This term identifies the major internal organs of an animal, including the intestines’ waste content.

4:12 carry outside the camp. This was a symbolic gesture of removing the sin from the people (cf. Heb. 13:11–13 in reference to Christ).

4:13–21 Sacrifices for the sin of the congregation were to follow, essentially, the same procedure as that for the sin of priests (4:3–12).

4:16 The anointed priest. See note on 4:3.

4:22–26 These are sacrifices for the sin of a ruler. The blood of the sacrifice was not sprinkled in the Holy Place, as for the priest or congregation (4:6, 17), but only on the altar of burnt offering.

4:27–35 These are sacrifices for the sin of an individual. Either a goat (4:27–31) or a lamb (4:32–35) could be sacrificed in much the same manner as the offering for a ruler (4:22–26).

5:1–13 Dealing with unintentional sins continues with an emphasis on sins of omission (vv. 1–4). Lambs/goats (v. 6), birds (vv. 7–10), or flour (vv. 11–13) were acceptable sacrifices.

5:1–5 This call to confession named a few examples of violations for which penitence was the right response: (1) withholding evidence (v. 1); (2) touching something unclean (vv. 2, 3); and (3) rash oath making (v. 4).

5:1 oath . . . witness. A witness who did not come forward to testify was sinning when he had actually seen a violation or had firsthand knowledge, such as hearing the violator confess to the sin.

5:4 swears. “Speaking thoughtlessly” suggests a reckless oath for good or bad, i.e., an oath the speaker should not or could not keep.

5:5 he shall confess. Confession must accompany the sacrifice as the outward expression of a repentant heart which openly acknowledged agreement with God concerning sin. Sacrifice without true faith, repentance, and obedience was hypocrisy (cf. Ps. 26:4; Is. 9:17; Amos 5:21–26).

5:7 burnt offering. See notes on 1:3–17.

5:11 ephah. About six gallons. no oil . . . frankincense. Contrast the grain offering (2:2).

5:13 grain offering. See notes on 2:1–16.

5. Trespass offerings (5:14–6:7)

5:14–6:7 See 7:1–10 for the priests’ instructions. The trespass offering symbolized an atonement for sin unknowingly committed, where restitution was possible. Like the sin offering (4:1–5:13), this one was compulsory. For sins against the Lord’s property, restitution was made to the priest (5:14–19), while restitution was made to the person who suffered loss in other instances (6:1–7).

5:15 shekel of the sanctuary. This amounted to twenty gerahs (Ex. 30:13; Lev. 27:25; Num. 3:47) or two bekahs (Ex. 38:26), which is the equivalent of four-tenths of one ounce. God fixed the value of a shekel.

5:16 one-fifth. The offender was required to make a 120 percent restitution, which was considerably lower than that prescribed elsewhere in the Mosaic law, e.g., Exodus 22:7, 9. Perhaps this is accounted for by a voluntary confession in contrast to an adjudicated and forced conviction.

6:1–7 While all sins are against God (cf. Ps. 51:4), some are direct (5:14–19) and others are indirect, involving people (6:1–7), as here. These violations are not exhaustive, but representative samples used to establish and illustrate the principle.

6:6 your valuation. The priest served as an appraiser to give appropriate value to the goods in question.

B. Legislation for the Priesthood (6:8–7:38)

6:8–7:38 These were laws of sacrifice for the priesthood. Leviticus 1:1–6:7 has dealt with five major offerings from the worshiper’s perspective. Here, instructions for the priests are given, with special attention given to the priests’ portion of the sacrifice.

1. Burnt offerings (6:8–13)

6:8–13 The burnt offering. See notes on 1:3–17.

6:9 on the hearth upon the altar all night. This resulted in the complete incineration of the sacrifice, picturing it as totally given to the Lord, with the smoke arising as a sweet aroma to Him (1:7, 13, 17).

6:10, 11 ashes. This described both the immediate (v. 10) and final (v. 11) disposition of the ash remains, i.e., that which is worthless.

6:12 fat . . . peace offerings. See note on 3:4.

6:13 always be burning. The perpetual flame indicated a continuous readiness on the part of God to receive confession and restitution through the sacrifice.

2. Grain offerings (6:14–23)

6:14–23 The grain offering. See notes on 2:1–16.

6:15 handful. See note on 2:2.

6:16–18 Unlike the burnt offering, the grain offering provided food for the priests and their male children, i.e., future priests.

6:16 in a holy place. This was to be eaten only in the courtyard of the tabernacle.

6:19–23 Aaron, as high priest, was to make a daily grain offering at morning and night on behalf of his priestly family.

6:20 he is anointed. See 8:7–12. ephah. See note on 5:11.

6:22 The priest . . . in his place. The high priests who succeed Aaron are in view here. wholly burned. The priests’ offering was to be given completely, with nothing left over.

3. Sin offerings (6:24–30)

6:24–30 The sin offering. See notes on 4:1–5:13.

6:25 burnt offering. See notes on 1:3–17. most holy. See note on 2:3.

6:26 priest . . . eat. The priest putting the offering on the brazen altar could use it for food, if the sacrifice was for a ruler (4:22–26) or the people (4:27–35).

6:27, 28 These are instructions on the cleanness of the priest’s garments as they relate to blood.

6:30 no sin offering . . . eaten. Those sacrifices made on behalf of a priest (4:3–12) or the congregation (4:13–21) could be eaten.

4. Trespass offerings (7:1–10)

7:1–10 The trespass offering. See notes on 5:14–6:7. Verses 7–10 provide a brief excursus on what may be eaten by the priests.

7:1 most holy. See note on 2:3.

7:7 See note on 6:26.

7:10 mixed with oil or dry. Both were acceptable options.

5. Peace offerings (7:11–36)

7:11–36 The peace offering. See notes on 3:1–17. The purposes of the peace offering are given in vv. 11–18. Special instructions which prevented a priest from being “cut off” (vv. 19–27) and the allotment to Aaron and his sons (vv. 28–36) are enumerated.

7:11–15 A peace offering for thanksgiving shall also be combined with a grain offering (see 2:1–16). The meat had to be eaten that same day, probably for the reason of health since it would rapidly spoil and for the purpose of preventing people from thinking that such meat had some spiritual presence in it, thus developing some superstitions.

7:13 leavened bread. Contrast the unleavened grain offering (see 2:11).

7:16–18 vow . . . voluntary offering. The priest could eat the meat the same day or next day, but eating on the third day brought punishment.

7:19–21 cut off. Uncleanness was punishable by death. See chapter 22 for more details.

7:22–27 See note on 3:17.

7:27 cut off. See note on 7:19–21.

7:29 offering . . . sacrifice. The worshiper made a peace offering from his sacrifice so that the Lord received the blood (v. 33) and the fat (v. 33). The priests received the breast (vv. 30, 31) and right thigh (v. 33). The worshiper could use the rest for himself.

7:30–32 wave offering . . . heave offering. These were symbolic acts indicating the offering was for the Lord. Bread (Ex. 29:23, 24), meat (Ex. 29:22–24), gold (Ex. 38:24), oil (Lev. 14:12), and grain (Lev. 23:11) all served as wave offerings. Heave offerings are far less numerous (see Ex. 29:27, 28 and Deut. 12:6, 11, 17). Jewish tradition portrayed the wave offering as being presented with a horizontal motion and the heave offering with a vertical motion, as suggested by Leviticus 10:15. Leviticus 9:21 refers to both as a wave offering.

7:36 He anointed them. See 8:30.

6. Concluding remarks (7:37, 38)

7:37, 38 Moses gives a summary conclusion of 1:3–7:36.

7:37 the consecrations. This refers to the offerings at the ordination of Aaron and his sons (see 8:14–36; Ex. 29:1–46).

II. BEGINNING OF THE PRIESTHOOD (8:1–10:20)

8:1–10:20 Beginnings of the Aaronic priesthood are discussed in this section. Before the time of Aaron, the patriarchs (Gen. 4:3, 4) and the fathers (Job 1:5) had offered sacrifices to God, but with Aaron came the fully prescribed priestly service.

A. Ordination of Aaron and His Sons (8:1–36)

8:1–36 Aaron and his sons were consecrated before they ministered to the Lord. The consecration of Aaron and his sons had been ordered long before (see notes on Ex.29:1–28 ), but is here described with all the ceremonial details as it was done after the tabernacle was completed and the regulations for the various sacrifices enacted.

8:2 the garments. See notes on Exodus 28:1–43. the anointing oil. Oil was used for ceremonial anointing (8:12, 30). sin offering. See notes on 4:1–5:13, esp. 4:3–12.

8:6–9 See notes on Exodus 28:1–43.

8:8 the Urim and the Thummim. A feature on the breastplate of the high priest by which God’s people were given His decision on matters which required a decision. See note on Exodus 28:30.

8:11 seven times. See note on 4:6.

8:12 to consecrate him. This act ceremonially set Aaron apart from the congregation to be a priest unto God, and from the other priests to be high priest.

8:14–17 See notes on 4:3–12.

8:17 offal. See note on 4:11.

8:18–21 See notes on 1:3–17.

8:23, 24 right ear . . . right hand . . . right foot. Using a part to represent the whole, Aaron and his sons were consecrated to listen to God’s holy Word, to carry out his holy assignments, and to live holy lives.

8:29 wave offering. See note on 7:30–32.

8:35 keep the charge of the LORD. The commandment of God ordered Aaron and his sons to do exactly as the Lord had spoken through Moses. Disobedience would meet with death.

B. First Sacrifices (9:1–24)

9:1–24 Since the priests had been consecrated and appropriate sacrifices offered on their behalf, they were prepared to fulfill their priestly duties on behalf of the congregation as they carried out all the prescribed sacrifices in Leviticus 1–7. They rendered them to the Lord.

9:2–4 sin . . . burnt . . . peace . . . grain offering. See notes on 4:1–5:13; 1:3–17; 3:1–17; and 2:1–16 respectively.

9:4, 6 the glory of the LORD. The Lord’s manifestation or presence was going to appear to them to show acceptance of the sacrifices. See notes on verses 23, 24, where that appearance is recorded.

9:8–21 Aaron presented sacrifices on his own behalf (vv. 8–14) and on behalf of the people (vv. 15–21).

9:17 burnt sacrifice . . . morning. See Exodus 29:41; Numbers 28:4.

9:21 wave offering. See note on 7:30–32.

9:22 lifted his hand toward the people. The high priest gave a symbolic gesture for blessing, perhaps pronouncing the priestly blessing (Num. 6:24–26; cf. 2 Cor. 13:14).

9:23 the glory of the LORD appeared. The Bible speaks often of the glory of God—the visible appearance of His beauty and perfection in blazing light. His glory appeared to Moses in a burning bush in Midian (Ex. 3:1–6), in a cloud on Mt. Sinai (Ex. 24:15–17), and in a rock on Mt. Sinai (Ex. 33:18–23). The glory of God also filled the tabernacle (Ex. 40:34), led the people as a pillar of fire and cloud (Ex. 40:35–38), and also filled the temple in Jerusalem (1 Kin. 8:10, 11). When Aaron made the first sacrifice in the wilderness, as a priest, the “glory of the Lord appeared to all the people.” In these manifestations, God was revealing His righteousness, holiness, truth, wisdom, and grace—the sum of all He is. However, nowhere has God’s glory been more perfectly expressed than in His Son, the Lord Jesus Christ (John 1:14). It will be seen on earth again when He returns (Matt. 24:29–31; 25:31).

9:24 fire came out . . . consumed. This fire miraculously signified that God had accepted their offering (cf. 1 Kin. 18:38, 39), and the people shouted for joy because of that acceptance and worshiped God.

C. Execution of Nadab and Abihu (10:1–20)

10:1 Nadab and Abihu. These were the two oldest sons of Aaron. censer. The vessel in which the incense was burned in the Holy Place (its features are unknown) was to be used only for holy purposes. profane fire. Though the exact infraction is not detailed, in some way they violated the prescription for offering incense (cf. Ex. 30:9, 34–38), probably because they were drunk (see vv. 8, 9). Instead of taking the incense fire from the brazen altar, they had some other source for the fire and, thus, perpetrated an act, which, considering the descent of the miraculous fire they had just seen and their solemn duty to do as God told them, betrayed carelessness, irreverence, and lack of consideration for God. Such a tendency had to be punished for all priests to see as a warning.

10:2 fire went out. The same divine fire that accepted the sacrifices (9:24) consumed the errant priests. That was not unlike the later deaths of Uzzah (2 Sam. 6:6, 7) or Ananias and Sapphira (Acts 5:5, 10).

10:3 regarded as holy . . . be glorified. Nadab and Abihu were guilty of violating both requirements of God’s absolute standard. The priests had received repeated and solemn warnings as to the necessity of reverence before God (see Ex. 19:22; 29:44). Aaron held his peace. In spite of losing his two sons, he did not complain, but submitted to the righteous judgment of God.

10:4 Mishael . . . Elzaphan. See Exodus 6:22 for their lineage. This procedure prevented the priests from defiling themselves by handling the dead bodies (Lev. 21:1), and allowed the whole congregation to see the result of such disregard for the holiness of God. out of the camp. As this was done with the ashes of sacrificed animals (6:11), so it was done with the remains of these two priests who received God’s wrath.

10:6 Eleazar and Ithamar. These are Aaron’s youngest sons who still lived. Later, the line of Eleazar would be designated as the unique line of the high priest (cf. Num. 25:10–13).

10:6, 7 This prohibition against the customary signs of mourning was usually reserved for the high priest only as prescribed in 21:10–12. Here, Moses applies it to Eleazar and Ithamar also.

10:8, 9 not drink wine or intoxicating drink. Taken in its context, this prohibition suggests that intoxication led Nadab and Abihu to perform their blasphemous act. Cf. Proverbs 23:20–35; 1 Timothy 3:3; Titus 1:7.

10:11 that you may teach the children of Israel. It was essential that alcohol not hinder the clarity of their minds, since the priests were to teach God’s law to all of Israel. They were the expositors of the Scripture, alongside the prophets who generally received the Word directly from the Lord. Ezra would become the supreme example of a commendable priest (Ezra 7:10).

10:12–15 See notes on 3:1–17; 7:11–36.

10:16–20 The sin offering had not been eaten as prescribed in 6:26 but, rather, it was wholly burned. It was the duty of the priests to have eaten the meat after the blood was sprinkled on the altar, but instead of eating it in a sacred feast, they had burned it outside the camp. Moses discovered this disobedience, probably from a dread of some further judgment, and challenged not Aaron, whose heart was too torn in the death of his sons, but the two surviving sons in the priesthood to explain their breach of ritual duty. Aaron, who heard the charge, and by whose direction the violation had occurred, gave the explanation. His reason was that they had done all the ritual sacrifice correctly up to the point of eating the meat, but omitted eating because he was too dejected for a feast in the face of the appalling judgments that had fallen. He was wrong, because God had specifically commanded the sin offering to be eaten in the Holy Place. God’s law was clear, and it was sin to deviate from it. Moses sympathized with Aaron’s grief, however, and having made his point, dropped the issue.

III. PRESCRIPTIONS FOR UNCLEANNESS (11:1–16:34)

11:1–16:34 Prescriptions for uncleanness are covered in this section. God used the tangible issues of life which He labeled clean/unclean to repeatedly impress upon Israel the difference between what was holy and unholy. “Clean” means acceptable to God; “unclean” means unacceptable to God. Leviticus 11–15 details the code of cleanness; Leviticus 16 returns to sacrifices on the Day of Atonement.

A. Unclean Animals (11:1–47)

11:1–47 This section contains further legislation on the consumption of animals. Abel’s offering hints at a post-fall/pre-flood diet of animals (Gen. 4:4). After the Noahic flood, God specifically had granted man permission to eat meat (Gen. 9:1–4), but here spelled out the specifics as covenant legislation. All of the reasons for the prohibitions are not specified. The major points were: (1) that Israel was to obey God’s absolute standard, regardless of the reason for it, or the lack of understanding of it; and (2) such a unique diet was specified that Israel would find it difficult to eat with the idolatrous people around and among them. Their dietary laws served as a barrier to easy socialization with idolatrous peoples. Dietary and hygienic benefits were real, but only secondary to the divine purposes of teaching obedience and separation. See note on 11:44, 45.

11:3–23 This section is repeated in Deuteronomy 14:3–20 in almost exact wording. The subject matter includes animals (vv. 3–8), water life (vv. 9–12), birds (vv. 13–19), and insects (vv. 20–23).

11:4 camel. The camel has a divided foot of two large parts, but the division is not complete and the two toes rest on an elastic pad.

11:5, 6 rock hyrax . . . hare. While not true ruminating animals, the manner in which these animals processed their food gave the distinct appearance of “chewing the cud.”

11:9 fins and scales. Much like the cud and hoof characteristics, the “no fin and scales” guidelines ruled out a segment of water life commonly consumed by ancient people.

11:13 among the birds. Rather than unifying characteristics as in the hoof-cud and no fin-scales descriptions, the forbidden birds were simply named.

11:21 This describes the locust (v. 22), which was allowed for food.

11:24–43 This section deals with separation from other defiling things.

11:26, 27 These prohibited animals would include horses and donkeys, which have a single hoof, and lion and tigers, which have paws.

11:30 gecko. A type of lizard.

11:36 a spring or a cistern. The movement and quantity of water determined the probability of actual contamination. Water was scarce also, and it would have been a threat to the water supply if all water touched by these prohibited carcasses were forbidden for drinking.

11:44, 45 consecrate yourselves . . . be holy; for I am holy. In all of this, God is teaching His people to live antithetically. That is, He is using these clean and unclean distinctions to separate Israel from idolatrous nations who have no such restrictions, and He is illustrating by these prescriptions that His people must learn to live His way. Through dietary laws and rituals, God is teaching them the reality of living His way in everything. They are being taught to obey God in every seemingly mundane area of life, so as to learn how crucial obedience is. Sacrifices, rituals, diet, and even clothing and cooking are all carefully ordered by God to teach them that they are to live differently from everyone else. This is to be an external illustration for the separation from sin in their hearts. Because the Lord is their God, they are to be utterly distinct. In verse 44, for the first time the statement “I am the LORD your God” is made, as a reason for the required separation and holiness. After this verse, that phrase is mentioned about fifty more times in this book, along with the equally instructive claim, “I am holy.” Because God is holy and is their God, the people are to be holy in outward ceremonial behavior as an external expression of the greater necessity of heart holiness. The connection between ceremonial holiness carries over into personal holiness. The only motivation given for all these laws is to learn to be holy because God is holy. The holiness theme is central to Leviticus (see 10:3; 19:2; 20:7, 26; 21:6–8).

B. Uncleanness of Childbirth (12:1–8)

12:1–8 Uncleanness is related to the mother’s afterbirth, not the child.

12:2 customary impurity. This refers to her monthly menstruation cycle (see 15:19–24).

12:3 eighth day. Joseph and Mary followed these instructions at the birth of Christ (Luke 2:21). circumcised. The sign of the Abrahamic covenant (Gen. 17:9–14) was incorporated into the laws of Mosaic cleanness. Cf. Romans 4:11–13. For a discussion on circumcision, see note on Jeremiah 4:4.

12:5 two weeks . . . sixty-six days. Apparently, mothers were unclean twice as long (eighty days) after the birth of a daughter as a son (forty days), which reflected the stigma on women for Eve’s part in the Fall. This stigma is removed in Christ (see notes on 1 Tim. 2:13–15 ).

12:6 burnt offering . . . sin offering. Though the occasion was joyous, the sacrifices required were to impress upon the mind of the parent the reality of original sin and that the child had inherited a sin nature. The circumcision involved a cutting away of the male foreskin, which could carry infections and diseases in its folds. This cleansing of the physical organ so as not to pass on disease (Jewish women have historically had the lowest incidence of cervical cancer), was a picture of the deep need for cleansing from depravity, which is most clearly revealed by procreation, as men produce sinners and only sinners. Circumcision points to the fact that cleansing is needed at the very core of a human being, a cleansing God offers to the faithful and penitent through the sacrifice of Christ to come.

12:8 turtledoves . . . pigeons. Cf. Leviticus 1:14–17; 5:7–10. These were the offerings of Joseph and Mary after Christ’s birth (cf. Luke 2:24), when they presented Jesus as their firstborn to the Lord (Ex. 13:2; Luke 2:22). Birds, rather than livestock, indicated a low economic situation, though one who was in total poverty could offer flour (5:11–14).

13:1–14:57 This section covers laws pertaining to skin diseases.

C. Unclean Diseases (13:1–59)

13:2 bright spot. This probably refers to inflammation. a leprous sore. This is a term referring to various ancient skin disorders that were sometimes superficial, sometimes serious. It may have included modern leprosy (Hansen’s disease). The symptoms described in verses 2, 6, 10, 18, 30, and 39 are not sufficient for a diagnosis of the clinical condition. For the protection of the people, observation and isolation were demanded for all suspected cases of what could be a contagious disease. This biblical leprosy involved some whiteness (v. 3; Ex. 4:6), which disfigured its victim, but did not disable him. Naaman was able to exercise his functions as general of Syria’s army, although a leper (2 Kin. 5:1, 27). Both OT and NT lepers went almost everywhere, indicating that this disease was not the leprosy of today that cripples. A victim of this scaly disease was unclean as long as the infection was partial. Once the body was covered with it, he was clean and could enter the place of worship (see vv. 12–17). Apparently the complete covering meant the contagious period was over. The allusion to a boil (vv. 18–28) with inflamed or raw areas and whitened hairs may refer to a related infection that was contagious. When lepers were cured by Christ, they were neither lame nor deformed. They were never brought on beds. Similar skin conditions are described in verses 29–37 and verses 38–44 (some inflammation from infection). The aim of these laws was to protect the people from disease; but more importantly, to inculcate into them by vivid object lessons how God desired purity, holiness, and cleanness among His people.

13:45 Unclean! Unclean! Here is the symbol of grief and isolation. This same cry is heard from the survivors of Jerusalem’s destruction (cf. Lam. 4:15).

13:47–59 This deals with garments worn by infected persons.

13:59 to pronounce it clean or . . . unclean. The primary purpose of this legislation was to assist the priest in determining the presence of contagious skin disease. The language of the passage indicates disease that affects the clothes as it did the person. This provided more illustrations of the devastating infection of sin and how essential cleansing was spiritually.

D. Cleansing of Diseases (14:1–57)

14:1–32 This section explains the cleansing ritual for healed persons.

14:2 the law of the leper. The sense of this law is a prescription, not for healing from leprosy and other such diseases, but rather for the ceremonial cleansing, which needed to be performed after the person was declared clean.

14:3 out of the camp. The leper was not allowed to return to society immediately. Before the person could enter the camp, some priest skilled in the diagnosis of disease needed to examine him and assist with the ritual of the two birds (vv. 4–7).

14:4–7 The bundle of cedar and hyssop tied with scarlet included the living bird. It was all dipped seven times (cf. 2 Kin. 5:10, 14) into the blood of the killed bird mixed with water to symbolize purification. The bird was then set free to symbolize the leper’s release from quarantine.

14:4 hyssop. See note on Exodus 12:22 (cf. Lev. 14:6, 49, 51).

14:8 outside his tent. The movement was progressive until finally he could enter and dwell in his own tent, giving dramatic indication of the importance of thorough cleansing for fellowship with God’s people. This was a powerful lesson from God on the holiness He desired for those who lived among His people. This has not changed (see 2 Cor. 7:1).

14:10–20 As part of the leper’s ceremonial cleansing ritual, trespass (5:14–6:7), sin (4:1–5:13), burnt (1:3–17), and grain (2:1–16) offerings were to be made.

14:10 one log of oil. Less than one pint.

14:12 wave offering. See note on 7:30–32.

14:17 right ear . . . right hand . . . right foot. See note on 8:23, 24.

14:18 put on the head. This would not have been understood as an anointing for entry into an office, but rather a symbolic gesture of cleansing and healing. There could be a connection with the NT directive to anoint the sick for healing (Mark 6:13; 16:18; James 5:14).

14:33–57 This section covers contaminated houses which most likely involved some kinds of infectious bacteria, fungus, or mold.

14:34 I put the leprous plague. God’s sovereign hand is acknowledged in the diseases that were in Canaan (cf. Ex. 4:11; Deut. 32:39). He had His purposes for these afflictions, as He always does. Uniquely, in Israel’s case, they allowed for object lessons on holiness.

14:37 ingrained streaks, greenish or reddish. The disease would appear to be some sort of contagious mildew. Leprosy (Hansen’s disease), as we know it today, is not the problem here since it is a disease related to the human senses, i.e., the destruction of feeling due to the dysfunction of the nerves (see note on 13:2 ). It is not known to be contagious either, and it couldn’t be developed in a house. The matter of cleansing such houses is delineated in verses 38–53.

14:57 to teach when it is unclean and when it is clean. The priest needed instruction in identifying and prescribing the course for disease such as that described herein, to teach people the importance of distinguishing holy things.

E. Unclean Discharges (15:1–33)

15:1–33 This section deals with purification for bodily discharges. Several types of discharges by men (vv. 1–18) and women (vv. 19–30) are identified and given prescribed treatment.

15:2–15 These verses describe secretions related to some disease of the male sexual organs. After he became well, he was required to make both a sin and a burnt offerings (v. 15).

15:16–18 These verses refer to natural sexual gland secretions for which no offerings were required.

15:19–24 These verses concern the natural menstrual discharge of a woman for which no offerings were required.

15:25–30 These verses deal with some secretion of blood indicating disease, not menstruation, requiring sin and burnt offerings after she is well.

15:31–33 In all these instructions, God was showing the Israelites that they must have a profound reverence for holy things; and nothing was more suited to that purpose than to bar from the tabernacle all who were polluted by any kind of uncleanness, ceremonial as well as natural, physical as well as spiritual. In order to mark out His people as dwelling before Him in holiness, God required of them complete purity and didn’t allow them to come before Him when defiled, even by involuntary or secret impurities. And when one considers that God was training a people to live in His presence, it becomes apparent that these rules for the maintenance of personal purity, pointing to the necessity of purity in the heart, were neither too stringent nor too minute.

F. Purification of the Tabernacle from Uncleanness (16:1–34)

16:1–34 This section covers the Day of Atonement (cf. Ex. 30:10; Lev. 23:26–32; Num. 29:7–11; Heb. 9:1–28), which was commanded to be observed annually (v. 34) to cover the sins of the nation, both corporately and individually (v. 17). Even with the most scrupulous observance of the required sacrifices, many sins and defilements still remained unacknowledged and, therefore, without specific expiation. This special inclusive sacrifice was designed to cover all that (v. 33). The atonement was provided, but only those who were genuine in faith and repentance received its benefit, the forgiveness of God. That forgiveness was not based on any animal sacrifice, but on the One whom all sacrifices pictured—the Lord Jesus Christ and His perfect sacrifice on the cross (cf. Heb. 10:1–10). This holiest of all Israel’s festivals occurred in September/ October on the tenth day of the seventh month (v. 29). It anticipated the ultimate High Priest and the perfect sacrificial Lamb.

16:1 The death of the two sons of Aaron. Cf. 10:1–3.

16:2 Common priests went every day to burn incense on the golden altar in the part of the tabernacle sanctuary, outside the veil, where the lampstand, table, and showbread were. None except the high priest was allowed to enter inside the veil (cf. v. 12), into the Holy Place, actually called the Holy of Holies, the Most Holy (Ex. 26:33), or the Holiest of All (Heb. 9:3, 8), where the ark of the covenant rested. This arrangement was designed to inspire a reverence for God at a time when His presence was indicated by visible symbols. appear in the cloud. This cloud was likely the smoke of the incense which the high priest burned on his annual entrance into the Most Holy Place. It was this cloud that covered the mercy seat on the ark of the covenant (see v. 13). the mercy seat. See Exodus 25:17–22. It literally means “place of atonement” and referred to the throne of God between the cherubim (cf. Is. 6). It is so named because it was where God manifested Himself for the purpose of atonement.

16:3 sin . . . burnt offering. For these offerings brought by Aaron the high priest, see notes on 4:1–5:13; 6:24–30 and 1:3–17; 6:8–13, respectively. The bull was sacrificed first as a sin offering (16:11–14) and later the ram as a burnt offering (16:24).

16:4 For a description of the priests’ normal clothing, see Exodus 28:1–43; Leviticus 8:6–19. He wore them later for the burnt offering (cf. v. 24). These humbler clothes were less ornate, required for the Day of Atonement to portray the high priest as God’s humble servant, himself in need of atonement (vv. 11–14).

16:5 two . . . goats. See 16:7–10, 20–22. One animal would be killed to picture sub-stitutionary death and the other sent to the wilderness to represent removal of sin. one ram. Along with the high priest’s ram (v. 3), these were to be offered as burnt offerings (v. 24).

16:6–28 The following sequence describes the activities of the high priest and those who assisted him on the Day of Atonement: (1) The high priest washed at the laver in the courtyard and dressed in the tabernacle (v. 4). (2) The high priest offered the bull as a sin offering for himself and his family (vv. 3, 6, 11). (3) The high priest entered the Holy of Holies with the bull’s blood, incense, and burning coals from the altar of burnt offering (vv. 12, 13). (4) The high priest sprinkled the bull’s blood on the mercy seat seven times (v. 14). (5) The high priest went back to the courtyard and cast lots for the two goats (vv. 7, 8). (6) The high pries sacrificed one goat as a sin offering for the people (vv. 5, 9, 15). (7) The high priest reentered the Holy of Holies to sprinkle blood on the mercy seat and also the Holy Place (cf. Ex. 30:10; vv. 15–17). (8) The high priest returned to the altar of burnt offering and cleansed it with the blood of the bull and goat (vv. 11, 15, 18, 19). (9) The scapegoat was dispatched to the wilderness (vv. 20–22). (10) Afterward, the goatkeeper cleansed himself (v. 26). (11) The high priest removed his special Day-of-Atonement clothing, rewashed, and put on the regular high priest clothing (vv. 23, 24). (12) The high priest offered two rams as burnt offerings for himself and the people (vv. 3, 5, 24). (13) The fat of the sin offering was burned (v. 25). (14) The bull-and-goat sin offerings were carried outside the camp to be burned (v. 27). (15) The one who burned the sin offering cleansed himself (v. 28).

16:8 cast lots. See note on Proverbs 16:33. the scapegoat. Cf. verses 10, 26. This goat (lit. Azazel or “escape goat”) pictured the substitutionary bearing and total removal of sin which would later be fully accomplished by Jesus Christ (cf. Matt. 20:28; John 1:29; 2 Cor. 5:21; Gal. 1:4; 3:13; Heb. 9:28; 10:1–10; 1 Pet. 2:24; 1 John 2:2). See notes on verses 20–22.

16:9, 10 See notes on verses 20–22.

16:12 inside the veil. See note on verse 2. The veil separated all from the holy and consuming presence of God. It was this veil in Herod’s temple that was torn open from top to bottom at the death of Christ, signifying a believer’s access into God’s presence through Jesus Christ (see Matt. 27:51; Mark 15:38; Luke 23:45).

16:13 cloud. See note on verse 2. on the Testimony.The Testimony included the tablets of stone, upon which were written the Ten Commandments (Ex. 25:16; 31:18), located in the ark under the mercy seat.

16:14 seven times. This number symbolically indicated completion or perfection (cf. v. 19).

16:16 atonement for the Holy Place. The object of this solemn ceremony was to impress the minds of the Israelites with the conviction that the whole tabernacle was stained by the sins of a guilty people. By those sins, they had forfeited the privileges of the presence of God and worship of Him, so that an atonement had to be made for their sins as the condition of God remaining with them.

16:17 himself . . . household . . . assembly. The Day of Atonement was necessary for everyone since all had sinned, including the high priest.

16:20–22 This “sin offering of atonement” (Num. 29:11) portrayed Christ’s substitutionary sacrifice (vv. 21, 22) with the result that the sinner’s sins were removed (v. 22). See notes on Isaiah 52:13–53:12 for another discussion of these truths. Christ lived out this representation when He cried from the cross, “My God, My God, why have You forsaken Me?” (Matt. 27:46).

16:21, 22 putting them on the head of the goat. This act was more than a symbolic gesture; it was a picture of the ultimate “substitutionary atonement” fulfilled by the Lord Jesus Christ (cf. Is. 53:5, 6; 10:12; see note on 2 Cor. 5:21 ).

16:27 outside the camp. This represents the historical reality of Christ’s death outside of Jerusalem (cf. Heb. 13:10–14).

16:29 seventh month. Tishri is September/October. afflict your souls. This act of denying oneself was probably with respect to food, making the Day of Atonement the only day of prescribed fasting in Israel’s annual calendar.

16:30 clean from all your sins. See Psalm 103:12; Isaiah 38:17; Micah 7:19. This day provided ceremonially cleansing for one year, and pictured the forgiveness of God available to all who believed and repented. Actual atonement was based on cleansing through the sacrifice of Christ (cf. Rom. 3:25, 26; Heb. 9:15).

16:34 once a year. The better sacrifice of Jesus Christ was offered once-for-all, never to be repeated (cf. Heb. 9:11–10:18). Upon that sacrifice, all forgiveness of sin is based, including that of OT believers.

IV. MANDATES FOR PRACTICAL HOLINESS (17:1–27:34)

17:1–27:34 Stipulations for practical holiness are detailed throughout this section.

17:1–22:33 Holiness issues that pertain to the individual are enumerated.

A. Sacrifice and Food (17:1–16)

17:1–16 Miscellaneous laws relating to sacrifice are discussed.

17:1–9 The Lord warns against sacrificing anywhere other than at the door of the tabernacle of meeting (cf. vv. 5–7).

17:4 guilt of bloodshed. An unauthorized sacrifice could result in death.

17:5 peace offerings. See notes on 3:1–17; 7:11–34.

17:10–16 Warnings against the misuse of blood are issued (cf. 7:26, 27; Deut. 12:16, 23–25; 15:23; 1 Sam. 14:32–34).

17:11 life of the flesh is in the blood. This phrase is amplified by “its blood sustains its life” (17:14). Blood carries life-sustaining elements to all parts of the body; therefore, it represents the essence of life. In contrast, the shedding of blood represents the shedding of life, i.e., death (cf. Gen. 9:4). NT references to the shedding of the blood of Jesus Christ are references to His death. blood that makes atonement. Since it contains the life, blood is sacred to God. Shed blood (death) from a substitute atones for or covers the sinner, who is then allowed to live.

17:13, 14 It was customary with heathen hunters, when they killed any game, to pour out the blood as an offering to the god of the hunt. The Israelites, to the contrary, were enjoined by this directive and banned from all such superstitious acts of idolatry.

17:15, 16 This cleansing was necessary because these animals would not have had the blood drained properly. Cf. Exodus 22:31; Deuteronomy 14:21.

B. Proper Sexual Behavior (18:1–30)

18:1–30 Laws are given, relating to sexual practices, which would eliminate the abominations being practiced by the heathen in the land (18:27; cf. Lev. 20:10–21; Deut. 22:13–30). These specific laws assume the general prohibition of adultery (Ex. 20:14) and a father incestuously engaging his daughter. They do not necessarily invalidate the special case of a levirate marriage (cf. Deut. 25:5). The penalties for such outlawed behavior are detailed in 20:10–21.

18:3 doings. Repeating the sexual practices or customs of the Egyptians and Canaanites was forbidden by God.

18:4 I am the LORD your God. This phrase, used over fifty times, asserts the uniqueness of the one true and living God, who calls His people to holiness as He is holy, and calls them to reject all other gods.

18:5 if a man does, he shall live by them. Special blessing was promised to the Israelites on the condition of their obedience to God’s Law. This promise was remarkably verified in particular eras of their history, in the national prosperity they enjoyed when pure and undefiled religion prevailed among them. Obedience to God’s Law always insures temporal blessings, as this verse indicates. But these words have a higher reference to spiritual life as indicated by the Lord (cf. Luke 10:28) and Paul (cf. Rom. 10:5). Obedience does not save from sin and hell, but it does mark those who are saved (cf. Eph. 2:8, 9; see notes on Rom. 2:6–10 ).

18:6–18 This section deals with consanguinity, i.e., the sins of incest.

18:6 uncover his nakedness. This is a euphemism for sexual relations.

18:8 your father’s wife. Actually, a stepmother is in mind here (cf. v. 7).

18:11 your sister. Here, he is forbidden to marry a stepsister.

18:18 while the other is alive. The principle on which the prohibitions are made changes slightly. Instead of avoiding sexual involvement because it would violate a relational connection, this situation defaults to the principle of one person at a time, or while the other is still alive, i.e., it forbids polygamy. Commonly in Egyptian, Chaldean, and Canaanite culture, sisters were taken as wives in polygamous unions. God forbids such, as all polygamy is forbidden by the original law of marriage (see Gen. 2:24, 25). Moses, because of hard hearts, tolerated it, as did others in Israel in the early stages of that nation. But it always led to tragedy.

18:19 customary impurity. This refers to a woman’s menstrual period (cf. 15:24).

18:21 Molech. This Semitic false deity (god of the Ammonites) was worshiped with child sacrifice (cf. Lev. 20:2–5; 1 Kin. 11:7; 2 Kin. 23:10; Jer. 32:35). Since this chapter deals otherwise with sexual deviation, there is likely an unmentioned sexual perversion connected with this pagan ritual. Jews giving false gods homage gave foreigners occasion to blaspheme the true God.

18:22 not lie with a male. This outlaws all homosexuality (cf. 20:13; Rom. 1:27; 1 Cor. 6:9; 1 Tim. 1:10). See notes on Genesis 19:1–29.

18:23 mate with any animal. This outlaws the sexual perversion of bestiality.

18:29 cut off. All the sexual perversions discussed in this chapter were worthy of death, indicating their loathsomeness before God.

18:30 were committed before you. Not in their presence, but by the people who inhabited the land before them in time (cf. v. 27), were such sins committed.

C. Neighborliness (19:1–37)

19:1–37 Here are practical applications of holy conduct in society.

19:2 I the LORD your God am holy. This basic statement, which gives the reason for holy living among God’s people, is the central theme in Leviticus (cf. 20:26). See note on 11:44, 45. Cf. 1 Peter 1:16. Israel had been called to be a holy nation, and the perfectly holy character of God (cf. Is. 6:3) was the model after which the Israelites were to live (cf. 10:3; 20:26; 21:6–8).

19:3 revere his mother and his father. The fifth commandment (cf. Ex. 20:12) to honor one’s father and mother is amplified by the use of a different word, revere. Because they revered (an attitude), they could then honor (an action).

19:3, 4 In addition to the fifth commandment, the fourth (19:3b), the first (19:4a), and the second (19:4b) were commanded as illustrations of holy behavior (cf. Ex. 20:3–6, 8–11).

19:5–8 peace offering. See notes on 3:1–17; 7:11–34.

19:9, 10 This was the law of gleaning (cf. 23:22; Deut. 24:19–22), a practice seen in Ruth 2:8–23.

19:11 Commandments from Exodus 20 are again repeated.

19:12 Cf. Matthew 5:33.

19:13 wages . . . shall not remain with you all night. Hired workers were to be paid at the end of a work day. Unsalaried day workers depended on pay each day for their sustenance. See notes on Matthew 20:1, 2.

19:14 the deaf . . . the blind. Israel’s God of compassion always demonstrated a concern for the disabled.

19:16 take a stand against the life. This refers to doing anything that would wrongfully jeopardize the life of a neighbor.

19:18 This, called the second great commandment, is the most often quoted OT text in the NT (Matt. 5:43; 19:19; 22:39; Mark 12:31, 33; Luke 10:27; Rom. 13:9; Gal. 5:14; James 2:8).

19:19 These mixtures may have been characteristic of some idolatrous practices.

19:20–22 In the case of immorality with a betrothed slave, the couple was to be punished (possibly by scourging), but not killed. Afterward, a trespass offering (see notes on 5:14–6:7 ) was to be rendered with appropriate reparation. This is an exception to the norm (cf. Deut. 22:23, 24).

19:23–25 uncircumcised. They could not eat from the fruit trees of Canaan for four years after entering the land because the fruit of the first three years was to be considered unclean, and the fourth year the fruit was to be offered to the Lord. Some gardeners say preventing a tree from bearing fruit in the first years, by cutting off the blossoms, makes it more productive.

19:26 divination . . . soothsaying. Attempting to tell the future with the help of snakes and clouds was a common ancient way of foretelling good or bad future. These were forbidden forms of witchcraft which involved demonic activity. See note on Deuteronomy 18:9–12.

19:27, 28 These pagan practices were most likely associated with Egyptian idolatry and were, therefore, to be avoided. The practice of making deep gashes on the face and arms or legs, in times of grief, was universal among pagans. It was seen as a mark of respect for the dead, as well as a sort of propitiatory offering to the gods who presided over death. The Jews learned this custom in Egypt and, though weaned from it, relapsed into the old superstition (cf. Is. 22:12; Jer. 16:6; 47:5). Tattoos also were connected to names of idols, and were permanent signs of apostasy.

19:29 prostitute your daughter. Even the pagans of ancient Assyria at this time forbade such horrendous means of monetary gain.

19:30 Sabbaths. See note on 19:3, 4.

19:31 mediums . . . familiar spirits. Mediums are humans who act as “go-betweens” to supposedly contact/communicate with the spirits of the dead, who are actually impersonated by demons. Cf. 20:6, 27.

19:32 rise . . . honor. Showing respect for the older man acknowledged God’s blessing of long life and the wisdom that comes with it (cf. Is. 3:5).

19:33, 34 stranger. Cf. Exodus 22:21.

19:36 ephah . . . hin. These dry and liquid measures, respectively, were equal approximately to four to six gallons and six to eight pints.

D. Capital/Grave Crimes (20:1–27)

20:1–27 Here, capital and other grave crimes are discussed. Many of the same issues from chapters 18 and 19 are elaborated, with the emphasis on the penalty paid for the violation.

20:2 gives any of his descendants to Molech. Molech (Moloch), the Ammonite god of the people surrounding Israel, required human (especially child) sacrifice. See note on 18:21.

20:5, 6 cut him off. This means to kill. It is synonymous with “put to death” in verse 9.

20:5 prostitute themselves. This speaks figuratively of spiritual harlotry.

20:6 medium . . . familiar spirits. See note on 19:31. “Familiar spirits” refers to demons (cf. 20:27).

20:9 curses his father or his mother. Doing the very opposite of the command to honor or to revere (cf. 19:3) had fatal consequences. See Mark 7:10, where Jesus referred to this text.

20:10–21 Here are the punishments for violating the prohibitions of sexual sins detailed in 18:1–30; see Deuteronomy 22:13–30.

20:22 may not vomit you out. God repeatedly told Israel that remaining in the land required obedience to the Mosaic covenant (cf. 18:25, 28).

20:27 medium . . . familiar spirits. See note on 19:31.

E. Instructions for Priests (21:1–22:33)

21:1–24 Laws for the priests are given, which demanded a higher standard of holy conduct than for the general Israelite.

21:1 defile himself. Coming into contact with a corpse (Num. 19:11) or being in the same room with one (Num. 19:14) made a priest unclean. The exceptions were the dead from the priest’s own family (vv. 2–4).

21:5 bald place . . . edges . . . cuttings in their flesh. These were the superstitious marks of grief. See note on 19:27, 28. Cf. 1 Kings 18:28.

21:6 the bread of their God. This phrase appears five times in Leviticus 21 (cf. vv. 8, 17, 21, 22). It most likely refers to the bread of the Presence in the Holy Place (cf. 24:5–9; Ex. 25:30; 39:36; 40:23).

21:7, 8 The priest was allowed to marry, but only in the purest of circumstances. A holy marriage union pictured the holy union between God and His people. See 21:13, 14. The priests were to be living models of that holy union. Cf. Paul’s words regarding pastors in 1 Timothy 3:2, 4; Titus 1:6.

21:9 The priests’ children were to live a holy life. The common punishment of stoning (cf. Deut. 22:21) is replaced with burning by fire. Cf. 1 Timothy 3:4; Titus 1:6.

21:10–15 Here is a summary of the standards for the high priest which were the highest and most holy in accord with his utmost sacred responsibility.

21:10 shall not uncover his head nor tear his clothes. These are acts associated with mourning or anguish (cf. the violation in Christ’s trial, Matt. 26:65; Mark 14:63).

21:16–23 defect. Just as the sacrifice had to be without blemish, so did the one offering the sacrifice. As visible things exert strong impressions on the minds of people, any physical impurity or malformation tended to distract from the weight and authority of the sacred office, failed to externally exemplify the inward wholeness God sought, and failed to be a picture of Jesus Christ, the perfect High Priest to come (cf. Heb. 7:26).

22:1–33 These are additional instructions on ceremonial cleanness for the priests, beginning with a death threat (v. 3, “cut off”) to those who might violate these rules.

22:4 leper. Cf. 13:1–14:32; see note on 13:2. discharge. See notes on 15:1–33.

22:5 creeping thing. See 11:29–38.

22:7 he shall be clean. In the same manner, much water is not made unclean by a small contamination. Time was essential for ceremonial purification.

22:10, 11 buys a person with his money. This portion of the sacrifice assigned to the support of the priests was restricted to the use of his family. However, an indentured servant was to be treated as one of the priest’s family, pertaining to eating the consecrated food. See the laws of release, which show this to be a temporary indenture (25:10; Ex. 21:2–11; Deut. 15:12–18).

22:17–30 This section describes the unacceptable and acceptable sacrifices.

22:31–33 The motive behind obedience to God was His holy nature and grace in delivering the nation.

23:1–27:34 Holiness issues that pertain to the nation collectively are outlined.

23:1–24:9 The special feasts of Israel are explained. Cf. Exodus 23:14–17; Numbers 28:1–29:40; Deuteronomy 16:1–17.

F. Religious Festivals (23:1–44)

23:1–44 This section points to days which are sacred to the Lord. After the Sabbath (v. 3), the feasts are given in the order of the calendar (vv. 4–44).

23:2 proclaim to be holy convocations. These festivals did not involve gatherings of all Israel in every case. Only the feasts of: (1) Unleavened Bread; (2) Weeks; and (3) Tabernacles required that all males gather in Jerusalem (cf. Ex. 23:14–17; Deut. 16:16, 17).

23:3 Sabbath of solemn rest. The Mosaic ordinance of the fourth commandment came first (cf. Gen. 2:1–3; Ex. 20:8–11).

23:4–22 Three events were commemorated in March/April: (1) Passover on the fourteenth (v. 5); (2) Feast of Unleavened Bread on the fifteenth to the twenty-first (vv. 6–8); and Feast of Firstfruits on the day after the Sabbath of Unleavened Bread week (vv. 9–14).

23:5 the LORD’s Passover. The festival commemorated God’s deliverance of Israel from Egypt (cf. Ex. 12:1–14, 43–49; Num. 28:16; Deut. 16:1, 2).

23:6–8 Feast of Unleavened Bread. This festival, connected with the Passover, commemorated Israel’s hurried departure from Egypt and the associated hardships (cf. Ex. 12:15–20; 13:3–10; Num. 28:17–25; Deut. 16:3–8).

23:9–14 the firstfruits of your harvest. This festival dedicated the initial part of the barley harvest in March/April and was celebrated on the day after the Sabbath of Unleavened Bread week. It involved presenting to the Lord a sheaf of barley (cf. 23:10, 11) accompanied by burnt, grain, and drink offerings (cf. Ex. 29:40). Firstfruits symbolized the consecration of the whole harvest to God, and was a pledge of the whole harvest to come (cf. Rom. 8:23; 11:16; 1 Cor. 15:20; James 1:18).

23:15–22 fifty days. The Feast of Weeks (May/June) dedicated the firstfruits of the wheat harvest (cf. Ex. 23:16; Num. 28:26–31; Deut. 16:9–12). It occurred on the fiftieth day after the Sabbath preceding the Feast of Firstfruits. It is also known as the Feast of Harvest (Ex. 23:16) and Pentecost, Greek for fifty (Acts. 2:1).

23:23–43 Three events were commemorated in September/October: (1) Feast of Trumpets on the first (vv. 23–25); (2) Day of Atonement on the tenth (vv. 26–32); and (3) Feast of Tabernacles on the fifteenth to the twenty-first (vv. 33–43).

23:23–25 memorial of blowing of trumpets. This feast, called the Feast of Trumpets, consecrated the seventh month (September/ October) as a sabbatical month (cf. Num. 29:1–6).

23:26–32 Day of Atonement. The annual Day of Atonement pointed to the forgiveness and cleansing of sin for the priests, the nation, and the tabernacle (see notes on 16:1–34 ).

23:33–43 Feast of Tabernacles. This festival commemorated God’s deliverance, protection, and provision during the wilderness wanderings of the Exodus (cf. Ex. 23:16; Num. 29:12–38; Deut. 16:13–15). It is also known as the Feast of Booths (Deut. 16:13) and Feast of Ingathering (Ex. 23:16). The people lived in booths or huts made from limbs (cf. Neh. 8:14–18), remembering their wilderness experience. It also celebrated the autumn harvest and will be celebrated in the Millennium (cf. Zech. 14:16).

G. The Tabernacle (24:1–9)

24:1–9 These are additional instructions for the tabernacle relating to the lamps (vv. 1–4) and the bread (vv. 5–9). See Exodus 25:31–40; 27:20, 21; 37:17–24 and Exodus 25:23–30; 39:36; 40:23, respectively.

24:5 Each loaf was made with four quarts of flour.

H. An Account of Blasphemy (24:10–23)

24:10–23 This portion relates to the sin of blasphemy. Cf. Exodus 20:7; 22:28.

24:10–14, 23 Now the son. Here is another historical example of blasphemy along similar lines as the Nadab and Abihu account (10:1, 2). The blasphemer was one of the “many other people.” The people transferred the guilt of them all to him.

24:12 put him in custody. There were no jails in Israel since incarceration was not a penalty for crime. They had merely restrained him, probably in a pit of some sort, until they could establish his punishment. Punishments were corporal, banishment, or, in severe cases, death. Those who lived through the punishment worked to secure restitution for those they had violated.

24:20 Cf. Matthew 5:38. This law of retaliation established the principle that the punishment should fit the crime, but not go beyond it.

I. Sabbatical and Jubilee Years (25:1–55)

25:1–55 Proper care for the Lord’s property is prescribed for the sabbatical year (25:1–7) and the Jubilee year (25:8–55).

25:1–7 This involves revitalization of the land. The seventh year of rest would invigorate and replenish the nutrients in the soil. Whatever grew naturally was free to all for the taking (vv. 6, 7).

25:8–55 The Year of Jubilee involved a year of release from indebtedness (vv. 23–38) and bondage of all sorts (vv. 39–55). All prisoners and captives were set free, slaves released, and debtors absolved. All property reverted to original owners. This plan curbed inflation and moderated acquisitions. It also gave new opportunity to people who had fallen on hard times.

25:8–17 These are general instructions for Jubilee.

25:9 Jubilee. This literally means “ram’s horn,” which was blown on the tenth day of the seventh month to start the fiftieth year of universal redemption.

25:10 proclaim liberty. Not only must they let the land lie fallow, but the people were allowed a one-year break from their labor. Those bound by a work contract were released from their commitments and there was the release of indentured servants.

25:14–16 The Jubilee year had an effect on the value of land, which was to be considered in all transactions.

25:17 you shall not oppress one another. No one should take advantage of or abuse another person, because cruelty is against the very character of God. Penalties for crime were to be swift and exact.

25:18–22 God’s provision in the year of no planting was given, which on a smaller scale had been true for the Sabbath day during the Exodus (cf. Ex. 16:5).

25:20, 21 enough for three years. When the important query was asked, God responded by promising to supply enough to last.

25:23–34 Various regulations regarding real estate are outlined.

25:23 the land is Mine. God owns the earth and all that is in it (cf. Ps. 24:1). The people of Israel were, in fact, only tenants on the land by the Lord’s grace. Therefore, ownership of property was temporary, not permanent.

25:33 cities of the Levites. Cf. Numbers 35:1–8; Joshua 21.

25:34 common-land. These were fields that the village/city-at-large used to grow crops.

25:35–38 Instructions on dealing with the poor are outlined.

25:35 like a stranger or a sojourner. The law required gleanings (leftovers after harvest) for the Israelite as well as the stranger (cf. 19:9, 10; 23:22; Deut. 24:19–21).

25:36 usury or interest. Usury or excessive interest was prohibited for all (Ps. 15:5). Even fair interest was otherwise prohibited in dealing with the poor (see notes on Deut. 23:19, 20; 24:10–13 ). The basics of life were to be given, not loaned, to the poor.

25:38 to give you the land of Canaan. The Lord cites His generosity in giving them a land that was not theirs as a motive for their generosity toward their countrymen.

25:39–55 The principles for dealing with slavery are laid out.

25:42 For they are My servants. The spirit of OT slavery is revealed in these words. God, in effect, ordered that slaves be treated like family, i.e., better than employees, because they are His slaves which He redeemed out of the slave markets of Egypt. God owned not only the land (v. 23), but also the people.

25:44–46 from the nations. These slaves included people whom Israel was to either drive out or destroy (i.e., slavery was a humane option) and those who came to Israel in the Exodus from Egypt.

25:47–55 This section deals with an alien who has an Israelite slave.

25:48 redeemed. Redemption, a contractual agreement which existed in the slave culture, offered the potential for emancipation to indentured individuals under certain conditions. Slaves could be bought out of slavery or some other sort of indentured status by family members or other interested parties who would pay the ransom price.

25:51–54 the price of his redemption. The cost of buying him out of slavery was affected by the Jubilee year, when he could be set free.

25:55 The Israelites, emancipated from Egypt by God, were all God’s servants; therefore, they were to treat their own slaves with the same grace and generosity as God had granted them.

J. Exhortations to Obey the Law: Blessings and Curses (26:1–46)

26:1–46 The covenant blessings for obedience (26:3–13) and curses for disobedience (26:14–39) are elaborated (cf. Deut. 28). A provision for repentance is also offered (26:40–45).

26:1, 2 A representative summary of the Ten Commandments (Ex. 20:3–17) was set forth as the standard by which Israel’s obedience or disobedience would be measured.

26:1 image . . . pillar . . . engraved stone. Israel’s neighbors used all of these devices for the worship of their gods.

26:3–13 These blessings will reward obedience.

26:4 rain in its season. If the rains did not come at the right times, the people experienced crop failure and famine (cf. 1 Kin. 17; 18).

26:6 evil beasts. Dangerous animals such as lions and bears existed in that area. Joseph’s brothers claimed that such an animal had killed him (Gen. 37:20).

26:7 chase your enemies. God provided victories repeatedly in the conquest of Canaan (cf. Josh. 8–12).

26:9 make you fruitful, multiply you and confirm My covenant with you. What God commanded at reation and repeated after the flood was contained in the covenant promise of seed (Gen. 12:1–3), which He will fulfill to the nation of Israel as promised to Abraham (Gen. 15:5, 6).

26:12 your God . . . My people. The promise of an intimate covenant relationship with the God of the universe is given (cf. 2 Cor. 6:16).

26:14–39 These punishments will repay disobedience.

26:15 break My covenant. By disobeying the commandments and the various laws of the Mosaic covenant, Israel broke this conditional covenant. Unlike the ultimate provisions of the unconditional covenant made with Abraham, all blessings in the covenant of Mosaic law were conditioned upon obedience (cf. Lev. 26:25).

26:16 wasting disease. Perhaps tuberculosis or leprosy is in view (the subject of much legislation in Lev. 13; 14), but no certain identification is possible. your enemies shall eat it. They will be conquered by their enemies at a time when those enemies will enjoy Israel’s harvest.

26:22 highways shall be desolate. The activity on a nation’s roadway, i.e., messengers, merchants, and people traveling, reflected the well-being of that country. This is a picture of extreme economic siege.

26:25 the vengeance of the covenant. God’s retribution for Israel’s breaking the conditional Mosaic covenant is pledged.

26:29 eat the flesh. There will be widespread famine in the land and, thus, the people will even resort to cannibalism, which actually came to pass (cf. 2 Kin. 6:28, 29; Jer. 19:9; Lam. 2:20; 4:10).

26:30 high places. These were natural shrines for the worship of idols. Solomon disobeyed God by worshiping Him on the high places (1 Kin. 3:4), and not long afterward, he was serving the gods of his foreign wives (1 Kin. 11:1–9).

26:31–35 All this occurred in the terrible invasion of the northern kingdom of Israel in 722 B.C. by the Assyrians and the destruction of the southern kingdom of Judah in 605–586 B.C. by the Babylonians. In the case of Judah, it was a seventy-year captivity to rest the land for all the Sabbath years that had been violated. See 2 Chronicles 36:17–21.

26:35 the time it did not rest. By implication, this is because they had violated the Sabbath repeatedly. This violation became the basis of the later seventy-year Babylonian captivity (cf. 2 Chr. 36:20–21).

26:38 The ten tribes of the northern kingdom of Israel never returned directly from captivity. See 2 Kings 17:7–23; see note on Acts 26:7.

26:40–42 if they confess, . . . I will remember My covenant. God’s covenant was rooted in the relationship He had initiated with His people. True repentance would be honored by Him.

26:42 Jacob . . . Isaac . . . Abraham. The reverse chronological order of these names provides a look in retrospect as opposed to the actual historical sequence.

26:46 Much of the content of Leviticus came during Moses’ two “forty day and night” visits to Sinai (cf. Ex. 24:16–32:6; 34:2–28; Lev. 7:37, 38; 25:1; 27:34).

K. Redemption of Votive Gifts (27:1–34)

27:1–34 Standard legislation is given for dedicated persons, animals, houses, and lands.

27:2–7 consecrates by a vow. This sets the gift apart from the rest of his household and possessions as a gift to the Lord and His service.

27:3 the shekel of the sanctuary. See note on 5:15.

27:26 the firstborn. The firstborn already belonged to the Lord (Ex. 13:2), so the worshiper could not dedicate it a second time.

27:29 person under the ban. Like Achan in Joshua 7.

27:30–32 tithe. This general tithe was given to the Levites. Cf. Numbers 18:21–32. This is the only mention of tithe or ten percent in Leviticus. However, along with this offering, there were two other OT tithes which totaled about twenty-three percent annually (cf. the second tithe—Deut. 14:22; and the third tithe every three years—Deut. 14:28, 29; 26:12).

Further Study

Harris, R. Laird. Leviticus, in Expositor’s Bible Commentary. Grand Rapids, Zondervan, 1990.

Wenham, G. J. The Book of Leviticus. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1979.