THE BOOK OF
LAMENTATIONS

Title

Lamentations, which conveys the idea of “loud cries,” was derived from a translation of the title as found in the Latin Vulgate and the Septuagint. The Hebrew exclamation “How!” (which expresses “dismay”; 1:1; 2:1; 4:1) gives the book its Hebrew title. However, the rabbis began to call the book “loud cries” or “lamentations” early on (cf. Jer. 7:29). No other entire OT book contains only laments, as does this distressful dirge, marking the funeral of the once-beautiful city of Jerusalem (cf. 2:15). This book keeps alive the memory of that city’s fall (586 B.C.) and teaches all believers how to deal with suffering.

Author and Date

The author of Lamentations is not named within the book, but there are internal and historical indications that it was Jeremiah. For example, the LXX introduces Lamentations 1:1, “And it came to pass, after Israel had been carried away captive . . . Jeremiah sat weeping (cf. 3:48, 49) . . . lamented . . . and said.” Elsewhere, God told Jeremiah to have Judah lament (Jer. 7:29). Jeremiah also wrote laments for Josiah (2 Chr. 35:25).

Jeremiah wrote Lamentations as an eyewitness (cf. 1:13–15; 2:6, 9; 4:1–12), possibly with Baruch’s secretarial help (cf. Jer. 36:4; 45:1), during or soon after Jerusalem’s fall in 586 B.C. It was mid-July when the city fell and mid-August when the temple was burned. Likely, Jeremiah saw the destruction of the walls, towers, homes, palace, and temple; he wrote while the event remained painfully fresh in his memory, but before his forced departure to Egypt c. 583 B.C. (cf. Jer. 43:1–7). The language used in Lamentations closely parallels that used by Jeremiah in his much larger prophetic book. Cf. (1) 1:2 with Jeremiah 30:14; (2) 1:15 with Jeremiah 8:21; (3) 1:6 and 2:11 with Jeremiah 9:1, 18; (4) 2:22 with Jeremiah 6:25; and (5) 4:21 with Jeremiah 49:12).

Background and Setting

The prophetic seeds of Jerusalem’s destruction had already been sown through Joshua, 800 years earlier (Josh. 23:15, 16). Now, for over forty years, Jeremiah had prophesied of coming judgment and been scorned by the people for preaching doom (c. 645–605 B.C.). When that judgment came on the disbelieving people from Nebuchadnezzar and the Babylonian army, Jeremiah still responded with great sorrow and compassion toward his suffering and obstinate people. Lamentations relates closely to the Book of Jeremiah, describing his anguish over Jerusalem being judged by God for unrepentant sins.

In the book that bears his name, Jeremiah had predicted this calamity in chapters 1–29. In Lamentations, he concentrates in more detail on the bitter suffering and heartbreak that was experienced in Jerusalem’s devastation (cf. Ps. 46:4, 5). So important was Jerusalem’s destruction that the facts are recorded in four separate OT chapters: 2 Kings 25; Jeremiah 39:1–11; 52; and 2 Chronicles 36:11–21.

All 154 verses have been recognized by the Jews as a part of their sacred canon. Along with Ruth, Esther, Song of Solomon, and Ecclesiastes, Lamentations is included among the OT books of the Megilloth, or “five scrolls,” which were read in the synagogue on special occasions. Lamentations is read on the ninth of Ab (July/August) to remember the date of Jerusalem’s destruction by Nebuchadnezzar. Interestingly, this same date later marked the destruction of Herod’s temple by the Romans in A.D. 70.

Historical and Theological Themes

The chief focus of Lamentations is on God’s judgment in response to Judah’s sin. This theme can be traced throughout the book (1:5, 8, 18, 20; 3:42; 4:6, 13, 22; 5:16). A second theme is the hope found in God’s compassion (as in 3:22–24, 31–33; cf. Ps. 30:3–5). Though the book deals with disgrace, it turns to God’s great faithfulness (3:22–25) and closes with grace as Jeremiah moves from lamentation to consolation (5:19–22).

God’s sovereign judgment represents a third current in the book. His holiness was so offended by Judah’s sin that He ultimately brought the destructive calamity. Babylon was chosen to be His human instrument of wrath (1:5, 12, 15; 2:1, 17; 3:37, 38; cf. Jer. 50:23). Jeremiah mentions Babylon more than 150 times from Jeremiah 20:4 to 52:34, but in Lamentations he never once explicitly names Babylon or its king, Nebuchadnezzar. Only the Lord is identified as the One who dealt with Judah’s sin.

Fourth, because the sweeping judgment seemed to be the end of every hope for Israel’s salvation and the fulfillment of God’s promises (cf. 3:18), much of Lamentations appears in the mode of prayer: (1) 1:11, which represents a wailing confession of sin (cf. v. 18); (2) 3:8, with its anguish when God “shuts out my prayer” (cf. 3:43–54; Jer. 7:16); (3) 3:55–59, where Jeremiah cries to God for relief; (4) 3:60–66, where he seeks for recompense to the enemies (which Jer. 50, 51 guarantees); and (5) 5:1–22, with its appeal to heaven for restored mercy (which Jer. 30–33 assures), based on the confidence that God is faithful (3:23).

A fifth feature relates to Christ. Jeremiah’s tears (3:48, 49) compare with Jesus’ weeping over the same city of Jerusalem (Matt. 23:37–39; Luke 19:41–44). Though God was the judge and executioner, it was a grief to Him to bring this destruction. The statement, “In all their affliction, He [God] was afflicted” (Is. 63:9), was true in principle. God will one day wipe away all tears (Is. 25:8; Rev. 7:17; 21:4) when sin shall be no more.

An implied warning to all who read this book encompasses a sixth major idea. If God did not hesitate to judge His beloved people (Deut. 32:10), what will He do to the nations of the world who reject His Word?

Interpretive Challenges

Certain details pose initial difficulties. Among them are: (1) imprecatory prayers for judgment on other sinners (1:21, 22; 3:64–66); (2) the reason for God shutting out prayer (3:8); and (3) the necessity of judgment that is so severe (cf. 1:1, 14; 3:8).

In the first four chapters, each verse begins in an acrostic pattern, i.e., using the twenty-two letters of the Hebrew alphabet in sequence. Chapters 1; 2; and 4 have twenty-two verses corresponding to twenty-two letters, while chapter 3 employs each letter for three consecutive verses until there are twenty-two trios, or sixty-six verses. Chapter 5 is not written alphabetically, although it simulates the pattern in that it has twenty-two verses. An acrostic order, such as in Psalm 119 (where all twenty-two Hebrew letters are used in series of eight verses each), was used to aid memorization. The structure of the book ascends to and then descends from the great confession in 3:22–24, “Great is His faithfulness,” which is the literary center of the book.

I. THE FIRST LAMENT: JERUSALEM’S DEVASTATION (1:1–22)

A. Jeremiah’s Sorrow (1:1–11)

1:1–22 How lonely sits the city. Jerusalem was lonely. Her people mourned, being forsaken by formerly friendly nations (v. 2). They were in captivity, uprooted from their land (v. 3). Their temple had been violated (v. 10). The multitude of sins (vv. 5, 8) had brought this horrific judgment from the righteous God (v. 18).

1:1 How like a widow. Verses 1–11 vividly portray the city like a bereft and desolate woman, as often in other Scriptures (cf. Ezek. 16, 23; Mic. 4:10, 13). a slave. Judah was taken captive to serve as slaves in Babylon.

1:2 lovers . . . friends . . . have become her enemies. This refers to the pagan nations allied to Judah and their idols whom Judah “loved” (Jer. 2:20–25). Some later joined as enemies against her (2 Kin. 24:2, 7; Ps. 137:7). She has none to comfort her. This ominous theme is mentioned four other times (vv. 9, 16, 17, 21).

1:3 captivity. C. 586 B.C. as in Jeremiah 39; 40; 52. There had been two deportations earlier, in 605 B.C. and 597 B.C. (cf. Introduction: Author and Date).

1:4 Zion. This represents the place where Jehovah dwells, the mount on which the temple was built. set feasts. Passover, Pentecost (Feast of Weeks), and Tabernacles (cf. Ex. 23; Lev. 23). priests sigh. These were among those left in Judah before fleeing to Egypt (Jer. 43) or, possibly, exiles in Babylon who mourned from afar (cf. v. 3).

The MacArthur Study Bible, by John MacArthur (Nashville: Word Publishing, 1997) 1139. © 1993 by Thomas Nelson, Inc.

1:5 the multitude of her transgressions. This was the cause of the judgment (cf. Jer. 40:3; Dan. 9:7, 16).

1:8 become vile. This could refer to either the vile, wretched estate of continued sin and its ruinous consequences through judgment, or to being “moved, removed,” as the LXX and VULGATE translate it. Probably the former is correct, as befits the third and fourth lines, i.e., a despised, shameful, and naked condition in contrast to her former splendor (cf. v. 6b).

1:9 Her uncleanness is in her skirts. A graphic description of the flow of spiritual uncleanness reaching the bottom of her dress (cf. Lev. 15:19–33).

1:10 enter her sanctuary. This was true of the Ammonites and Moabites (Deut. 23:3; Neh. 13:1, 2). If the heathen were not allowed to enter for worship, much less were they tolerated to loot and destroy. On a future day, the nations will come to worship (Zech. 14:16).

1:11 See, O LORD. The description of the devastated widow ends with a plea for God’s mercy.

B. Jerusalem’s Sorrow (1:12–22)

1:12 all you who pass by? Here was the pathetic appeal of Jerusalem for some compassion even from strangers!

1:13 fire into my bones. This emphasizes the penetrating depth of the judgment. turned me back. God’s purpose was to bring repentance.

1:14 yoke of my transgressions . . . by His hands. Once the farmer had put the yoke on the animal’s neck, he would control it with the reins in his hands. So God, who has brought Jerusalem under bondage to Babylon, still controlled His people.

1:15 an assembly against me. This is not the usual assembly for a solemn feast, but the army of Babylon for destruction. in a winepress. This speaks of forcing blood to burst forth like juice from crushed grapes. Comparable language is used in Revelation 14:20; 19:15 in regard to God’s final wrath.

1:17 unclean. This refers to a menstruous woman, shamed and separated from her husband and the temple (cf. vv. 8, 9; Lev. 15:19ff.).

1:18 The LORD is righteous . . . I rebelled. The true sign of repentance was to justify God and condemn oneself.

1:21, 22 Bring on the day. A prayer that God will likewise bring other ungodly people into judgment, especially Babylon (cf. 3:64–66; 4:21, 22). Such prayers are acceptable against the enemies of God (cf. Ps. 109:14, 15).

1:22 come before You. Cf. Revelation 16:19.

II. THE SECOND LAMENT: THE LORD’S ANGER EXPLAINED (2:1–22)

A. The Lord’s Perspective (2:1–10)

2:1 How the Lord has. Much in Lamentations 2 depicts God’s judgment in vivid portrayals. He covered the Judeans with a cloud (v. 1), withdrew His hand of protection (v. 3), bent His bow and killed with His arrows (v. 4), and stretched out a surveyor’s line to mark walls to be destroyed (v. 8). He will rebuild Jerusalem in the future kingdom (Zech. 2:1–13). The beauty of Israel. This likely refers to Mt. Zion and the temple (cf. Pss. 48:2; 50:2; Is. 60:13; 64:11; Ezek. 16:14; Dan. 11:45). His footstool. This refers to the ark of the covenant as indicated by 1 Chronicles 28:2; Psalms 99:5; 132:7.

2:2 He has thrown down. The Lord had cast down the bastions of Judah’s defense, as He had told Jeremiah from the outset of his ministry (Jer. 1:10).

2:3 Every horn. This serves as an emblem of power, as exemplified in animals.

2:6–11 Tragedy comes to everything and everyone through sin. The account mentions the temple where Israelites came to worship (v. 6), feasts and Sabbaths (v. 6), leaders such as the king and priests (v. 6), His altar and holy places (v. 7), city walls (v. 8), the law (v. 9), and children in the family (v. 11).

2:6, 7 Cf. 1:4.

2:7 noise in the house of the LORD as on the day of a set feast. A shout of triumph in the captured temple resembled the joyous celebrations in the same place at the solemn feasts.

B. A Human Perspective (2:11–19)

2:11, 12 This description of Babylon’s invasion depicted the reality of a hungry child dying in its mother’s arms as a result.

2:14 False and deceptive visions. As Jeremiah 23:16, 17 indicates, these lies spoke of peace and comfort, not judgment. Cf. Jeremiah 23:30–40 to see how such lying led to destruction.

2:17 He has fulfilled His word. The enemy who gloats in verses 15 and 16 should recognize that the destruction was the work of a sovereign God. This verse is the focal point of the chapter (cf. Jer. 51:12).

2:18 wall of the daughter of Zion. The penetrated walls of Jerusalem cried out in anguish that they had been broached by the Babylonians.

C. Jeremiah’s Prayer (2:20–22)

2:20 See, O LORD, and consider! The chapter closes by placing the issue before God. women eat their offspring. Hunger became so desperate in the eighteen-month siege that women resorted to the unbelievable—even eating their children (cf. 4:10; Lev. 26:29; Deut. 28:53, 56, 57; Jer. 19:9).

2:21 the day of Your anger. This describes the complete slaughter, as does 2 Chronicles 36:17.

III. THE THIRD LAMENT: JEREMIAH’S GRIEF EXPRESSED (3:1–66)

A. His Distress (3:1–20)

3:1–20 the man who has seen affliction. Jeremiah’s distress in such tragedy comes from God. Even the righteous experience “the rod of God’s wrath.”

3:8 He shuts out my prayer. Cf. verse 44. God’s non-response to Jeremiah’s prayers was not because Jeremiah was guilty of personal sin (cf. Ps. 66:18); rather, it was due to Israel’s perpetual sin without repentance (Jer. 19:15). God’s righteousness to judge that sin must pursue its course (cf. Jer. 7:16, see note there; 11:14). Jeremiah knowing that, yet prayed, wept (vv. 48–51), and longed to see repentance.

3:16 broken my teeth with gravel. This refers to the grit that often mixed with bread baked in ashes as was common in the east (cf. Prov. 20:17).

B. His Hope (3:21–38)

3:21–33 The relentless sorrow over Judah’s judgment drove Jeremiah to consider the grace, mercy, and compassion of God. The tone of his thinking changed dramatically.

3:21 This I recall. The prophet referred to what followed as he reviewed God’s character.

3:22 mercies. This Hebrew word, used about 250 times in the OT, refers to God’s gracious love. It is a comprehensive term that encompasses love, grace, mercy, goodness, forgiveness, truth, compassion, and faithfulness.

3:22–24 His compassions fail not. As bleak as the situation of judgment had become, God’s covenant lovingkindness was always present (cf. vv. 31, 32), and His incredible faithfulness always endured so that Judah would not be destroyed forever (cf. Mal. 3:6).

3:23 Great is Your faithfulness. The bedrock of faith is the reality that God keeps all His promises according to His truthful, faithful character.

3:27 The yoke in his youth. This speaks of the duty from God, including disciplinary training, that Jeremiah received in his youth (cf. Jer. 1:6, 7).

3:29 mouth in the dust. A term which pictures submission.

3:30 give his cheek. The Lord Jesus did this (cf. Is. 50:6; 1 Pet. 2:23).

3:33–47 God had a just basis for judgment.

3:38 This confirms God’s sovereign bestowal of both judgment and blessing.

C. His Counsel/Prayer (3:39–66)

3:40, 41 turn back to the LORD. The solution to Judah’s judgment was to repent, looking to God for relief and restoration.

3:42 not pardoned. God judged their sin righteously.

3:48–51 My eyes. The summary of Jeremiah’s sorrow.

3:52–63 My enemies. Jeremiah’s description of persecution sounded much like the time when his enemies at the palace had cast him into a cistern (cf. v. 53; Jer. 38:4–6). God reassured him in answer to prayer (v. 57), and redeemed him (v. 58) by sending Ebedmelech to rescue him (cf. Jer. 38:7–13). Jeremiah pleads for justice to be rendered on those enemies (vv. 59–63).

3:58 You have redeemed my life. Jeremiah said this to encourage others to trust God.

3:64–66 Repay them. This imprecatory prayer for divine vengeance would be answered in Babylon’s fall (cf. Is. 46; 47; Jer. 50; 51; Dan. 5). It would also receive its ultimate answer at the Great White Throne judgment (Rev. 20:11–15).

IV. THE FOURTH LAMENT: GOD’S WRATH DETAILED (4:1–22)

A. For Jerusalem (4:1–20)

4:1 gold has become dim. The gold adornment of the temple, looted by the conquerors, lost its luster with a coating of dust from the remains.

4:3 nurse their young. Even worthless jackals by nature nurse their young but, under the severities of conquest, Israelite women were unable to nurse their babies (cf. v. 4). Like ostriches. Birds which are notable for ignoring their young (cf. Job 39:14–16).

4:6 the sin of Sodom. Their sin was homosexuality. The fact that the suffering of Jerusalem was prolonged, while that of even Sodom was swift, marks it as the greater punishment (cf. 1 Pet. 4:17).

4:7, 8 Nazirites. Those who were the purest, most devout (cf. Num. 6), strong, healthy, and noble of the people became dirty, weak, and ignoble.

4:10 cooked . . . children. Cf. 2:20; see note there.

4:15 Go away. The people chased the false leaders away.

4:16 The face of the LORD. This was symbolic of divine anger. The Jews had to face up to God.

4:20 The breath of our nostrils. This was a term for God, the life-giver.

B. For Edom (4:21, 22)

4:21, 22 Edom . . . land of Uz. In effect God said, “Laugh all you want now. Your judgment will come” (cf. Jer. 25:15–29).

V. THE FIFTH LAMENT: THE REMNANT’S PRAYERS (5:1–22)

A. To Be Remembered by the Lord (5:1–18)

5:1–22 Remember, O LORD. Jeremiah prayed for mercy on his people. He summed up the nation’s wounds and woes (vv. 1–10), recalled woes of specific groups (vv. 11–14), showed why God judged (vv. 15–18), and interceded for the renewal of Israel (vv. 19–22; cf. Mic. 7:18–20).

5:6 the Egyptians . . . the Assyrians. The Jews sinfully submitted to unholy alliances, thus expressing trust in men for protection and goods (cf. Jer. 2:18, 36).

5:7 This is a cynical proverb from Jeremiah 31:29 and Ezekiel 18:2.

5:8–18 A list of horrors that had befallen Judah.

5:16 The crown has fallen. Israel lost its line of kings wearing the crown. The Davidic monarchy was temporarily over and will not be resumed until Christ comes as King (Jer. 23:5–8; Ezek. 37:24–28; Rev. 19:1–21).

B. To Be Restored by the Lord (5:19–22)

5:19 Your throne from generation. Here is the high point of this chapter. Jeremiah was consoled by the fact that God always sits on His sovereign throne, ruling over the universe from heaven (Pss. 45:6; 93:2; 102:12; 103:19; Dan. 4:3, 34, 35).

5:21 Turn us back to You. God must Himself initiate and enable any return to Him (cf. Ps. 80:3, 7, 19; Jer. 24:7; 31:18; John 6:44, 65). Renew our days. The intercessions of verses 19–22 will yet be fulfilled in the New Covenant restoration of Israel (cf. Jer. 30–33; see notes there ).

5:21, 22 This plea was not made with anger. The humble, closing prayer sought God, who can never reject His people forever, to be faithful in restoring them (cf. Jer. 31:35–37; 33:25, 26). In fact, their godly sorrow over sin was the beginning of that restoration, which would be completed by turning to God in faith and obedience.

Further Study

Dyer, Charles H. Lamentations, in Bible Knowledge Commentary—OT. Wheaton, Ill.: Victor, 1985.

Kaiser, Walter, Jr. A Biblical Approach to Personal Suffering. Chicago: Moody, 1982.