THE BOOK OF
HOSEA

Title

The title is derived from the main character and author of the book. The meaning of his name, “salvation,” is the same as that of Joshua (cf. Num. 13:8, 16) and Jesus (Matt. 1:21). Hosea is the first of the twelve Minor Prophets. “Minor” refers to the brevity of the prophecies, as compared to the length of the works of Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Ezekiel.

Author and Date

The Book of Hosea is the sole source of information about the author. Little is known about him, and even less about his father, Beeri (1:1). Hosea was probably a native of the northern kingdom of Israel, since he shows familiarity with the history, circumstances, and topography of the north (cf. 4:15; 5:1, 13; 6:8, 9; 10:5; 12:11, 12; 14:6). This would make him and Jonah the only writing prophets from the northern kingdom. Although he addressed both Israel (the northern kingdom) and Judah (the southern kingdom), he identified the king of Israel as “our king” (7:5).

Hosea had a lengthy period of ministry, prophesying c. 755–710 B.C., during the reigns of Uzziah (790–739 B.C.), Jotham (750–731 B.C.), Ahaz (735–715 B.C.), and Hezekiah (715–686 B.C.) in Judah, and Jeroboam II (793–753 B.C.) in Israel (1:1). His long career also spanned the last six kings of Israel from Zechariah (753–752 B.C.) to Hoshea (732–722 B.C.). The overthrow of Zechariah (the last of the dynasty of Jehu) in 752 B.C. is depicted as yet future (1:4). Thus, he followed Amos’s preaching in the north, and was a contemporary of Isaiah and Micah as well, both of whom prophesied in Judah. Second Kings 14–20 and 2 Chronicles 26–32 record the historical period of Hosea’s ministry.

Background and Setting

Hosea began his ministry to Israel (also called Ephraim, after its largest tribe) during the final days of Jeroboam II, under whose guidance Israel was enjoying both political peace and material prosperity, as well as moral corruption and spiritual bankruptcy. Upon Jeroboam II’s death (753 B.C.), however, anarchy prevailed and Israel declined rapidly. Until her overthrow by Assyria thirty years later, four of Israel’s last six kings were assassinated by their successors. Prophesying during the days surrounding the fall of Samaria, Hosea focuses on Israel’s moral waywardness (cf. the Book of Amos) and her breach of the convenantal relationship with the Lord, announcing that judgment was imminent.

Circumstances were not much better in the southern kingdom. Usurping the priestly function, Uzziah had been struck with leprosy (2 Chr. 26:16–21); Jotham condoned idolatrous practices, opening the way for Ahaz to encourage Baal worship (2 Chr. 27:1–28:4). Hezekiah’s revival served only to slow Judah’s acceleration toward a fate similar to that of her northern sister. Weak kings on both sides of the border repeatedly sought alliances with their heathen neighbors (7:11; cf. 2 Kin. 15:19; 16:7), rather than seeking the Lord’s help.

Historical and Theological Themes

The theme of Hosea is God’s loyal love for His covenant people, Israel, in spite of their idolatry. Thus, Hosea has been called the “St. John” (the apostle of love) of the OT. The Lord’s true love for His people is unending and will tolerate no rival. Hosea’s message contains much condemnation, both national and individual, but at the same time, he poignantly portrays the love of God toward His people with passionate emotion. Hosea was instructed by God to marry a certain woman and to experience with her a domestic life which was a dramatization of the sin and unfaithfulness of Israel. The marital life of Hosea and his wife, Gomer, provide the rich metaphor which clarifies the themes of the book: sin, judgment, and forgiving love.

Interpretive Challenges

That the faithless wife, Gomer, is symbolic of faithless Israel is without doubt; but other questions remain. First, some suggest that the marital scenes in chapters 1–3 should be taken only as allegory. However, there is nothing in the narrative, presented in simple prose, which would even remotely question its literal occurrence. Much of its impact would be lost if not literal. When non-literal elements within the book are introduced, they are prefaced with “saw” (5:13; 9:10, 13), the normal Hebraic means of introducing non-literal scenes. Furthermore, there is no account of a prophet ever making himself the subject of an allegory or parable.

Second, what are the moral implications of God’s command for Hosea to marry a prostitute? It appears best to see Gomer as chaste at the time of marriage to Hosea, only later having become an immoral woman. The words “take yourself a wife of harlotry” are to be understood proleptically, i.e., looking to the future. An immoral woman could not serve as a picture of Israel coming out of Egypt (2:15; 9:10) who then later wandered away from God (11:1). Chapter 3 describes Hosea taking back his wife, who had been rejected because of adultery—a rejection that was unjustifiable if Hosea had married a prostitute with full knowledge of her character.

A third question arises about the relationship between chapter 1 and chapter 3 and whether the woman of chapter 3 is Gomer or another woman. There are a number of factors which suggest that the woman of chapter 3 is Gomer. In 1:2, God’s command is to “go, take;” in 3:1, however, His command is to “go again, love,” suggesting that Hosea’s love was to be renewed to the same woman. Furthermore, within the analogy of chapter 1, Gomer represents Israel. As God renews His love toward faithless Israel, so Hosea is to renew his love toward faithless Gomer. For Hosea 3 to denote a different woman would confuse the analogy.

I. ADULTEROUS WIFE AND FAITHFUL HUSBAND (1:1–3:5)

A. Hosea and Gomer (1:1–9)

1:1 The Word of the LORD. Cf. 6:5. This kind of introduction, expressing the prophet’s divine authority and message source, appears also in Joel 1:1; Micah 1:1; Zephaniah 1:1; Zechariah 1:1; Malachi 1:1. Similar statements appear in Amos 1:3; Obadiah 1; Jonah 1:1; Haggai 1:2. See Introduction: Author and Date for the dates of the kings during Hosea’s ministry.

1:2 wife of harlotry. See Introduction: Interpretive Challenges. children of harlotry. This points to the future unfaithfulness of their mother. The children were possibly not fathered by Hosea. That Hosea’s marriage to Gomer was to depict God’s marriage to Israel is clearly set forth and becomes the key to the theme of the book.

1:4 Jezreel. Meaning “God will scatter” (cf. Zech. 10:9), the name is given to the child so named, as a prediction of judgment (cf. 2 Kin. 9:7–10:28). I will avenge the bloodshed of Jezreel. It was at the city of Jezreel where Jehu slaughtered the house of Ahab (cf. 2 Kin. 9:7–10:28). bring an end. This looks forward to the exile of Israel to Assyria in 722 B.C., from which she never returned.

1:5 the Valley of Jezreel. Jezreel, called Esdraelon, extends ten miles in breadth from the Jordan River to the Mediterranean Sea, near Carmel; it was the great battlefield (see Rev. 16:14–16) adjoining the Valley of Megiddo, which will become an avenue of blessing (cf. v. 11) when Christ returns in triumph. break the bow. The bow was a common euphemism denoting military strength, the principal instrument of warfare in Israel. Fulfillment came in 722 B.C. when Assyria invaded.

1:6 Lo-Ruhamah. Lit. “not pitied,” this daughter is named to symbolize God bringing judgment on Israel, no longer extending His favor towards them. Cf. 1 Peter 2:10.

1:7 I will have mercy on . . . Judah. God chose to intervene on behalf of Hezekiah when Jerusalem was besieged at the hands of the Assyrians in 701 B.C. (cf. 2 Kin. 19; Is. 37).

1:9 Lo-Ammi. The name means “not My people” and symbolizes God’s rejection of Israel. I will not be your God. Lit. “I will not be ‘I am’ to you.” The phrase gives the breaking of the covenant, a kind of divorce formula, in contrast to the covenant or marriage formula, “I am that I am.” given in Exodus 3:14.

B. God and Israel (1:10–2:23)

1:10–2:1 In spite of the waywardness of Israel, God preserved a future remnant for Himself from both Israel and Judah. To them, the Lord will say Ammi (1:9) and show Ruhamah (1:6). Cf. 1 Peter 2:10. Speaking of millennial blessings, God promised national increase (cf. Is. 54:1), national conversion and reunion (cf. Ezek. 37:15–23), national leadership (3:5), and national restoration (2:23).

1:10 number. A reaffirmation of the Abrahamic covenant, not to be fulfilled in this generation, but in the future (cf. Gen. 22:17). See notes on Genesis 12:1–3; 17:9. not My people. Quoted by Paul in Romans 9:26.

1:11 one head. This refers to Messiah (cf. 3:5). day of Jezreel. Here, used positively in the sense of divine blessing (cf. 2:22), in contrast to the idea of scattering in judgment (v. 4).

2:2 Bring charges against your mother. Although the language is applicable to Gomer, it depicts a courtroom scene in which the Lord, as the plaintiff, brings charges against the defendant. Individual Israelites, depicted as the children, are commanded to bring charges against their mother, Israel as a nation. The physical immorality of Gomer pictures the spiritual idolatry of Israel.

2:3 strip . . . expose. See notes on Ezekiel 16:1–6.

2:5 I will go. Lit. “Let me go,” it denotes strong desire and bent. Israel attributed her prosperity to the idols of her heathen neighbors, “her lovers” (cf. vv. 7, 10, 12). She would not be deterred from pursuing them.

2:8–13 God withheld rain and productivity to show Israel that the Canaanite god Baal was not the god of rain and fertility, not even a god.

2:8 prepared for Baal. Cf. 13:1. Baal (the Phoenician sun god) worship, already present during the time of the judges (cf. Judg. 2:17; 3:3; 8:33), became established in Israel when king Ahab married Jezebel, who attempted to obliterate Israelite worship of the true God (cf. 1 Kin. 19). Offerings to Baal actually came from God’s dowry to Israel (cf. Ezek. 16:10–14).

2:10 I will uncover her lewdness. God pledged to expose Israel’s wickedness. The phrase is linked to being taken forcibly into captivity in Ezekiel 16:37–40. her lovers. The idols were personified as if they could see, though they could offer no help.

2:11 feast days. Ever since the Exodus from Egypt, Israel had intermingled the worship of the Lord with the worship of false gods (cf. Amos 5:26; Acts 7:43).

2:13 Me she forgot. Cf. 2 Kings 17:7–18 for a detailed description of what the people’s abandonment of God involved.

2:14 speak comfort to her. The phrase was used of wooing (Gen. 34:3; Judg. 19:3; Ruth 2:13). God will restore Israel to Himself.

2:15 Valley of Achor. Lit. “Valley of Trouble,” near Jericho where Achan and his family were judged (Josh. 7:24). This promise alerts Israel that her discipline and judgment would not last forever because there is a “door of hope.”

2:16 My Husband . . . My Master. The former (lit. “my ishi”) denotes affection and intimacy, while the latter (lit. “my baali”) speaks of rulership.

2:17 In verse 13, Israel forgot her true God; God said she would forget her false gods. What the outward conformity to the Mosaic covenant could not do, God does through a new, regenerated heart in the New Covenant (Jer. 31:31–34; Zech. 13:1, 2).

2:18 a covenant. This depicts a millennial scene (cf. Is. 2:4; 11:6–9; Mic. 4:3) when God’s people become subject to God and creation becomes subject to them.

2:19, 20 I will betroth you. Repeated three times, the term emphasizes the intensity of God’s restoring love for the nation. In that day, Israel will no longer be thought of as a prostitute. Israel brings nothing to the marriage; God makes all the promises and provides all the dowry. These verses are recited by every orthodox Jew as he places the phylacteries on his hand and forehead (cf. Deut. 11:18). The regeneration/ conversion of the nation is much like that of an individual (cf. 2 Cor. 5:16–19).

2:21–23 A dramatic reversal of circumstances (cf. 1:4, 6, 9 with 1:10–2:1).

2:22 Jezreel. Lit. “God will scatter.” As in 1:11, used here in the positive sense of scattering seed to sow it.

2:23 Quoted by Paul in Romans 9:25.

C. Both Parties Reconciled (3:1–5)

3:1 Go again, love. Having been previously separated, Hosea was commanded to pursue his estranged wife Gomer (cf. Introduction: Interpretive Challenges), thereby illustrating God’s unquenchable love for faithless Israel. raisin cakes. Eaten as a part of special occasions (cf. 2 Sam. 6:19), they may have been used in idolatrous ceremonies, possibly as an aphrodisiac (cf. Song 2:5).

3:2 bought her. Probably from a slave auction, Hosea purchased Gomer for fifteen shekels of silver and one and one-half homers of barley. Together, the total value may have equaled thirty pieces of silver, the price paid for a common slave (cf. Ex. 21:32). Barley was the offering of a person accused of adultery (Num. 5:15).

3:3–5 Gomer would not be allowed conjugal relations for “many days,” with any man, including Hosea. As a further element of the picture of God’s dealings with His covenant people during the present age, Israel would exist without her existing political and religious (both true and false) relations until Messiah returns at the Second Advent to set up His millennial reign (cf. Ezek. 40–48; Zech. 12–14).

3:4 without ephod or teraphim. Idolatrous items of priestly clothing and objects of worship.

3:5 David. Cf. 1:11. This must refer to Messiah during the Millennium, as “in the latter days” specifies (cf. Is. 55:3, 4; Jer. 30:9; Ezek. 34:23, 24; 37:24, 25). The Jews did not seek after Christ at His First Advent. This reference has the Davidic covenant as its background (cf. 2 Sam. 7:12–17; Pss. 39; 132).

II. ADULTEROUS ISRAEL AND FAITHFUL LORD (4:1–14:9)

A. Adulterous Israel Found Guilty (4:1–6:3)

4:1 the LORD brings a charge. Turning from the analogy of his own marriage, the prophet made the judicial charge in God’s indictment against Israel.

4:2 Note the many infractions of the Ten Commandments (cf. Ex. 20:3–17).

4:3 Sin plays havoc with humanity and nature (cf. Joel 1:17–20; Rom. 8:19–22). See note on Zephaniah 1:3.

4:4 let no man contend. Rationalizing and denying their wrongs, the people protested their innocence, like those who would not humbly accept the decision of the priests (cf. Deut 17:8–13).

4:5 your mother. The Israelite nation of which the people are the children (cf. 2:2).

4:6 reject you from being priest for Me. Having rejected the Lord’s instruction, Israel could no longer serve as His priest to the nations (cf. Ex. 19:6; James 3:1).

4:7–10 Their position of power and glory, abused in succeeding generations by the eating of the sin offerings, would be turned to shame. Being no different than the people, the priests, who should have been faithful, would share their punishment (cf. Is. 24:1–3). As it was in Hosea’s time, so was it in Malachi’s era almost four centuries later (cf. Mal. 2:1–9).

4:11 Here is a moral truth applicable to all people and times, especially to Israel and Judah in Hosea’s lifetime.

4:12 spirit of harlotry. A prevailing mind-set and inclination to worldly, spiritual immorality, i.e., idolatry (cf. 5:4).

4:13 Bereft of righteous teaching and understanding, the people sacrificed to idols. Hilltops and groves of trees were favorite places for idolatrous worship (cf. Deut. 12:2; Jer. 2:20; Ezek. 6:13), including sinful religious prostitution.

4:14 Although all who sin will be judged, God forbade punishing the adulteresses alone and leaving the men who patronized them to go free. The heaviest punishment would not be on the women who sin, but on the fathers and husbands who set such a bad example by their engagement with prostitutes. do not understand. Cf. 4:6.

4:15 Gilgal. Between Jordan and Jericho in the area of Samaria, this was once a holy place to God (Josh. 5:10–15; 1 Sam. 10:8; 15:21), afterwards desecrated by idol worship (cf. 9:15; 12:11; Amos 4:4; 5:5). Beth Aven. Judah was to stay away from Israel’s centers of false worship, including Beth Aven (“house of wickedness/deceit”). This was a deliberate substitution for the name Bethel (“house of God”), once sacred to God (Gen. 28:17, 19), but made by Jeroboam a place to worship calves (cf.1 Kin. 12:28–33; 13:1; Jer. 48:13; Amos 3:14; 7:13).

4:16 Because Israel was like a stubborn calf, God no longer attempted to corral her, abandoning her as a lamb in a vast wilderness.

4:17 Ephraim . . . Let him alone. As the largest and most influential of the ten northern tribes, Ephraim’s name was often used as representative of the northern nation. This was an expression of God’s wrath of abandonment. When sinners reject Him and are bent on fulfilling their wicked purposes, God removes restraining grace and turns them over to the results of their own perverse choices. This kind of wrath is that written about in Romans 1:18–32 (cf. Judg. 10:13; 2 Chr. 15:2; 24:20; Ps. 81:11, 12).

5:1 Hear . . . Take . . . Give. Hosea addressed the priests, the people, and the royal family; the three imperatives demand attention. The religious and civil leaders had entrapped the people (cf. 6:9; 7:7). Mizpah . . . Tabor. Mizpah of Gilead, lying east of the Jordan River (Judg. 10:17; 11:29), and Tabor, southwest of the Sea of Galilee, were likely places for false worship.

5:2–4 slaughter . . . harlotry. The disobedient priests still slaughtered animals for unacceptable sacrifices rendered with sinful hearts to pagan gods.

5:5 pride of Israel testifies to his face. Israel’s pride in idolatry provided self-incrimination (cf. 7:10). Judah. This is the first of eleven indictments of the southern kingdom (5:5, 10, 12, 13, 14; 6:4, 11; 8:14; 10:11; 11:12; 12:2) in a book that is primarily directed toward the northern kingdom.

5:6, 7 Israel’s religious sacrifices and monthly festivals no longer brought divine favor, only judgment. God “has withdrawn Himself from them.” See note on 4:17.

5:8 Blow…horn. The enemy was already upon them and, thus, her watchmen were to sound the alarm (cf. Num. 10:9). Gibeah . . . Ramah. Located on Judah’s northern border with Israel. Beth Aven. (Bethel) situated in southern Israel (cf. 4:15). All three were strategic defense cities. Benjamin. This refers to the entire southern kingdom.

5:10 Judah. The southern kingdom was not innocent either. remove a landmark. Boundaries, marked by stones, could be easily moved at night. Moving them was tantamount to stealing land from a neighbor (cf. Deut. 19:14; 27:17; Prov. 22:28; 23:10). Worse, Judah’s leaders were moving spiritual lines established by God (cf. v. 11).

5:11 Ephraim suffers for following man’s will, not God’s will.

5:12 moth . . . rottenness. God will be destructive to Israel.

5:13 King Jareb. Jareb means “warrior” and refers to the king of Assyria (cf. 10:6), to whom Israel (cf. 2 Kin. 15:19, 20), and later Judah (cf. 2 Kin. 16:5–9), turned for help.

5:14, 15 Foreign assistance would be of no value, since the Lord was orchestrating lion-like punishment (cf. 13:7, 8) at the hands of the Assyrians for Israel and the Babylonians for Judah. He would remove Himself “till they acknowledge their offense” and “seek My face” (cf. 3:5).

6:1–3 Coming with the beginning of Christ’s millennial reign (cf. Zech. 12:10–13:1; Is. 43:1–6), Hosea records Israel’s future words of repentance (cf. 5:15).

6:2 After two days . . .; On the third day. This is not a reference to the Resurrection of Christ (illness, not death, is in the context of v. 1), but to the quickness of healing and restoration. Numbers are used similarly for literary effect elsewhere (e.g., Job 5:19; Prov. 6:16; 30:15, 18; Amos 1:3).

B. Adulterous Israel Put Away (6:4–10:15)

6:4–7 Because Israel’s commitment to the Lord was fleeting and superficial, He had to send prophets with stern words (vv. 4, 5), calling for a covenantal loyalty befitting a marriage relationship (v. 6). But they violated the marriage vows (v. 7).

6:6 I desire mercy . . . not sacrifice. Cf. 1 Samuel 15:22; Psalm 51:16, 17; Matthew 9:13; 12:7.

6:7 men . . . covenant. “Men” is the better translation, rather than “Adam” as some other translations. A reference to the Mosaic covenant (cf. 8:1; Ex. 19:5, 6).

6:8 Gilead. Cf. 12:11. A region located east of the Jordan River and north of the Jabbok. Most likely, the city of Ramoth Gilead is in view.

6:9 Shechem. This city is located forty miles north of Jerusalem in the central hill country, near Mt. Ebal and Mt. Gerizim. It was one of the forty-eight Levitical cities (Josh. 20:7) and was the first capitol of the northern kingdom (1 Kin. 12:25).

6:11 Lest Judah feel smug at her neighbor’s demise, the prophet reminds them that they have a day of reckoning also awaiting them (cf. Jer. 51:13; Joel 2:1–3).

7:1 Samaria. As the capital, Samaria represents the northern kingdom.

7:4–7 The civil leaders’ evil lust burned so passionately all night that the prophet repeatedly described it like a consuming oven (cf. vv. 4, 6, 7), so hot that the baker could forego stirring the fire during the entire night and still have adequate heat for baking the next morning.

7:7 All their kings have fallen. Four of Israel’s final six kings were murdered by usurpers. See Introduction: Author and Date.

7:8, 9 At Israel’s invitation, foreign nations made debilitating inroads into her national and religious life. This intrusion was making her like “a cake unturned,” burned on one side and raw on the other. Payment for this foreign assistance was “devouring her strength” (v. 9) and making her old and feeble without noticing it.

7:10 See note on 5:5.

7:11, 12 Like a dove, reputed to lack good sense (cf. Matt. 10:16), so Israel had sought assistance from Egypt and Assyria, rather than from the Lord, who would ultimately trap her (cf. 8:9, 10).

7:13 redeemed them. From Egypt and their other enemies.

7:14 wailed upon their beds . . . assemble together. The former phrase may speak of appeals to pagan fertility gods upon beds of sacred prostitution; while the latter, most likely, harkens to Elijah’s encounter with the prophets of Baal on Mt. Carmel (cf. 1 Kin. 18:28), based on an alternative translation of “gash themselves.”

8:1 trumpet. To sound the alarm, for the divine conqueror approaches. like an eagle. Lit. a “vulture,” Assyria was ready to descend quickly upon Israel to devour her (cf. Deut. 28:49). transgressed My covenant. See note on 6:7.

8:2 we know You! Israel’s syncretistic, false worship wherein she practiced idolatry while in vain crying out to God.

8:4 kings . . . idols. The best human effort without God’s true involvement is destined to fail.

8:5, 6 Your calf is rejected. Calf worship was the national religion of the northern kingdom (cf. 1 Kin. 12:25–33). This kind of worship had been rejected by God ever since it first appeared (cf. Ex. 32:1–35).

8:7 sow the wind . . . whirlwind. This indicates the escalating futility and uselessness of all their false religion.

8:9 they have gone up to Assyria. As the context notes, this is not a reference to the captivity, but to the alliance she made with Assyria (cf. 7:11, 12). “Like a wild donkey,” Israel has stubbornly pursued foreign assistance rather than depending on the Lord.

8:11, 12 Israel has been duly warned; she is without excuse (cf. 6:7; 8:1).

8:13 shall return to Egypt. Recalling the place of Israel’s former bondage, Hosea reminds them that Assyria will be their future “Egypt” (cf. 9:3; 11:5; Deut. 28:68). A few Judean refugees actually did go to Egypt (cf. 2 Kin. 25:26). Isaiah used “Sodom” in a similar, representative fashion (Is. 1:9, 10).

8:14 Judah . . . fortified cities. Though less idolatrous than Israel, Judah (see note on 5:5 ) showed lack of faith in God by trusting more in fortifications. Instead of drawing near to God, Judah multiplied human defenses (cf. Is. 22:8; Jer. 5:17). All of these efforts to trust more in human means than to depend wholly on God are doomed to failure.

9:1–17 Hosea enumerates the five features of the Lord’s banishment of Israel to Assyria: (1) loss of joy (vv. 1, 2); (2) exile (vv. 3–6); (3) loss of spiritual discernment (vv. 7–9); (4) declining birth rate (vv. 10–16); and (5) abandonment by God (v. 17).

9:1, 2 threshing floor . . . winepress. These were the very places where sacred prostitution took place in an attempt to cause Baal to bring prosperity. Instead, God brought poverty on them.

9:3 the LORD’s land. Cf. Leviticus 25:23. Egypt. See note on 8:13 (cf. 11:5).

9:4 bread of mourners . . . defiled. Food eaten on the occasion of mourning was considered unclean, defiling anyone who ate it (cf. Deut. 26:12–15).

9:6 Memphis. An ancient capital of Egypt known for its tombs and pyramids. This is used figuratively of Assyria (see notes on 2 Kin. 17:6–23 ).

9:7, 8 The true prophets were God’s inspired messengers and watchmen (cf. Ezek. 3:17; 33:1–7), yet Israel considered them fools and madmen. Thus, the nation was ensnared by the words of the prophets because she chose to ignore the true words of warning.

9:9 Gibeah. Cf. 10:9. Israel’s sin is likened to the gross evil of the men of Gibeah, a reference to their heinous rape of the concubine (Judg. 19:22–25), an infamous and unforgettable crime (cf. Judg. 19:30).

9:10 grapes in the wilderness. A rare and refreshing find (cf. Deut. 32:10). Baal Peor. Prior to entering the Promised Land, Israel fell into the idolatrous worship of Baal at Baal Peor (Num. 25:3–18). God killed 24,000 because of their immorality and false worship (Num. 25:9).

9:11–14 Reminiscent of the imprecatory psalms, Hosea prayed that God’s blessing would be withdrawn, in the figure of withholding children, the ultimate earthly blessing.

9:13 Tyre. A prosperous, Mediterranean coastal town south of Sidon. Just as Tyre will be severely judged (cf. Is. 13; Ezek. 26–28), so will Israel.

9:15 Gilgal. As a center of idol worship (see note on 4:15 ), the place was representative of Israel’s spiritual adultery; therefore, God had rejected them from intimate fellowship.

9:17 wanderers. God promised global dispersion for disobedience (cf. Lev. 26:33; Deut. 28:64, 65). However, one day yet future, God will regather His covenant people back to their land (cf. Deut. 30:3, 4; Is. 11:12; Jer. 30:3; Ezek. 37:21, 22; Amos 9:14; Zeph. 3:19, 20; Zech. 8:7, 8).

10:1 Agricultural prosperity had resulted in spiritual corruption (cf. Ezek. 16:10–19).

10:2 Because Israel was no longer uniquely loyal to the Lord, He would destroy their false worship.

10:3, 4 The last five kings of Israel were usurpers. Impotent and unworthy of respect, they were incapable of enforcing the laws of the land.

10:5 the calf of Beth Aven. See notes on 4:15; 8:5. Cf. 5:8

10:6 King Jareb. See note on 5:13.

10:8 Aven. See notes on 4:15; 5:8. Cover us! . . . Fall on us! The captivity would be so severe that the people would pray for the mountains and hills to fall on them, similar to the last days (cf. Luke 23:30; Rev. 6:16).

10:9 days of Gibeah. See note on 9:9.

10:10 two transgressions. Israel would receive a double portion of judgment for her iniquity (cf. Is. 40:2; Jer. 16:18).

10:11 a trained heifer that loves to thresh grain. This was a far easier work than plowing, since cattle were not bound together under a yoke, but tread on the grain singly and were free to eat some of it, as the law required that they be unmuzzled (Deut. 25:4; 1 Cor. 9:9). Since Israel desired to be yoked with false deities and foreign kings, the Lord would really put them in a yoke of exile to Assyria.

10:14 Shalman plundered Beth Arbel. Shalman was probably Shalmaneser V, king of Assyria (727–722 B.C.), who played a role in Israel’s demise (cf. 2 Kin. 17:3–6). Although the location of Beth Arbel is uncertain, the memory of the heinous crimes committed there was vividly etched into their minds.

10:15 Bethel. See notes on 4:15; 5:8. The chief sanctuary of Israel (cf. Amos 7:13) and a center of idolatry (1 Kin. 12:25–33; 2 Kin. 10:29). king. Hoshea, c. 732–722 B.C., was the last king of Israel (cf. 2 Kin. 17:1–6).

C. Adulterous Israel Restored to the Lord (11:1–14:9)

11:1 In tender words reminiscent of the Exodus from Egypt (cf. Ex. 4:22, 23), the Lord reassured Israel of His intense love for her. His compassion for her was aroused (cf. Is. 12:1; 40:1, 2; 49:13; Jer. 31:10–14; Zech. 1:12–17). See Matthew 2:15 for Matthew’s analogical use of this verse in relationship to Jesus Christ.

11:3, 4 The Lord’s endearing word pictures are reflected in Ezekiel’s touching descriptions of Israel’s early years (cf. Ezek. 16:1–14).

11:5–7 In spite of God’s tender care, Israel was ungrateful, deserving punishment (cf. Rom. 1:21).

11:5 shall not return to . . . Egypt. See note on 8:13.

11:7 backsliding. See note on Proverbs 14:14.

11:8 Admah . . . Zeboiim. Because of the Lord’s great love for Ephraim, it was painful to punish her as He did these two cities, which were destroyed with Sodom and Gomorrah (cf. Gen. 10:19; 19:23–25; Deut. 29:23).

11:9 I will not again destroy Ephraim. The destruction referred to that inflicted by the Assyrian King Tiglath-Pileser, who deprived Israel of Gilead, Galilee, and Naphtali (2 Kin. 15:29). Ultimately, it referred to the promise that after the long dispersion God would, in mercy, restore His people in the kingdom, never to be destroyed again. See note on 9:17.

11:10 will roar like a lion. Though the Lord would, as a lion, roar against Israel in judgment (cf. 5:14; 13:7), He would also roar for the purpose of calling, protecting, and blessing (cf. Joel 3:16). from the west. Returns from Assyrian and Babylonian captivities were from the east. This undoubtedly has reference to His return at the Second Advent to set up the millennial kingdom (cf. Is. 11:11, 12), when He calls Israel from their worldwide dispersion and reverses the judgment of 9:17.

11:11 Egypt . . . Assyria. See note on 8:13. Cf. 7:11, 12.

11:12 still walks with God. See note on 5:5. In keeping with the other mentions of Judah by Hosea, this phrase is better translated “is unruly against God” (cf. 12:2).

12:1 Israel’s attempted alliances with heathen neighbors were of no worth. This prophecy was delivered at about the time of Israel’s seeking aid from the Assyrian and Egyptian kings. See note on 8:9. Cf. 2 Kings 17:1–4.

12:2 Judah. See note on 5:5. Jacob. Frequently used interchangeably with “Israel” (cf. 10:11; Gen. 32:28).

12:3–6 Hosea exhorted the people to follow their father Jacob’s persevering prayerfulness, which brought God’s favor on him. As God is unchanging, He would show the same favor to Jacob’s posterity if, like him, they truly sought God.

12:3 brother . . . heel. See notes on Genesis 25:22–28.

12:3, 4 struggled . . . God . . . Angel. See Genesis 32:22–32. See note on Genesis 32:24.

12:4 Bethel. See Genesis 28:10–22; 31:13; 35:9–15.

12:5 Lord . . . memorable name. See note on Exodus 3:14.

12:7, 8 Canaanite. Because the Canaanites were known as traders, the word came to be used synonymously with “merchant” (cf. Ezek. 16:29; 17:4; Zeph. 1:11). Though she denied it (v. 8), Israel had become materialistic, filled with greed, and fond of dishonest gain.

12:9 At the annual Feast of Tabernacles, also called the Feast of Booths (cf. Num. 29:12–38), Israel lived in tents to commemorate her forty years of wilderness wanderings. In captivity, she would be forced to live in tents permanently.

12:10 I have also spoken. Here is an aggravation of their guilt, that it was not through ignorance that they sinned, but in defiance of God’s revealed Word (cf. Amos 3:8).

12:11 Gilead. See note on 6:8. Gilgal. See notes on 4:15; 9:15. Gilgal means “a heap of stones,” so this is a play on words. heaps in the furrows. As gathered and piled stones would dot a farmer’s field, so Israel multiplied her idolatrous stone altars across the land.

12:12–14 The reference to Jacob’s wanderings to Syria (Gen. 28:1–5; 29:1–30) and Israel’s escape from Egypt by Moses’ hand (Ex. 12–15) should cause Ephraim to confess her pride, recognize her humble origins, and acknowledge that only by God’s gracious power were they made and preserved as a nation.

13:1 trembling. When Ephraim, the most powerful tribe (cf. Gen. 48:17–20), spoke early in Israel’s history, it was with authority and produced fear. Baal. See note on 2:8. he died. Because of his sins and in spite of being feared, Ephraim died spiritually, and now nationally.

13:2 kiss the calves! An act of ridiculous devotion to their idols (cf. 1 Kin. 19:18).

13:3 These four similes vividly describe the spiritual futility, vanity, emptiness, and bankruptcy of idolatry.

13:4–6 Having entered into a marriage covenant with the Lord, Israel was to remain faithful to Him alone (cf. Ex. 20:2, 3); yet, she forgot Him.

13:4 no God but Me. See notes on Exodus 20:3–6. Israel had blatantly violated the first two commandments of the Torah. no savior besides Me. Cf. Isaiah 43:11. See note on Isaiah 43:3.

13:5 wilderness . . . drought. God cared for the nation’s needs during their wilderness wanderings, providing water (Ex. 17:1–7) and food (Num. 16).

13:6 filled. God brought the people into a land of milk and honey (Ex. 3:8; Deut. 6:3), but they turned their worship to other gods (cf. Deut. 31:20), as Moses prophesied.

13:7, 8 The lion, leopard, and bear are all native to Israel. Her Protector would now become to her as a wild beast, tearing and devouring in judgment because of Israel’s spiritual promiscuity (cf. Lev. 26:21, 22; Deut. 32:24; Ezek. 14:21).

13:9 destroyed . . . help. The one who helped the Israelites (v. 4) is the one who will destroy them in judgment (v. 8).

13:10 your king. This is better translated, “Where is your king?” This is an indictment of Israel for not recognizing the Lord as their true king. Cf. 1 Samuel 10:17–19.

13:11 This probably spans the time from Israel’s first king, Saul, c. 1011 B.C. (1 Sam. 15:26), to Israel’s last king, Hoshea, 722 B.C. (2 Kin. 17:7–18).

13:12 bound up . . . stored up. Israel’s sins are all well-documented and safely preserved for the day of reckoning (cf. 7:2; Deut. 32:34, 35; Job 14:17).

13:13 where children are born. This refers to the birth canal. Using this figure of giving birth, the Lord compares Ephraim to an unwise child, unwilling to move through to birth. By long deferring a “new birth” with repentance, the nation was like a child remaining in the canal dangerously long and risking death (cf. 2 Kin. 19:3; Is. 37:3; 66:9).

13:14 Placing the strong affirmation of deliverance so abruptly after a denunciation intensified the wonder of God’s unrequited love (cf. 11:8, 9; Lev. 26:44). This can apply to God’s restoration of Israel from Assyria, and in future times from all the lands of the Dispersion, preserving them and bringing them back to their land for the kingdom of Messiah (Ezek. 37). It also speaks of the time of personal resurrection as in Daniel 12:2, 3. Repentant Israelites will be restored to the land and even raised from death to glory. Paul uses this text in 1 Corinthians 15:55 (quoting the LXX) to celebrate the future resurrection of the church. The Messiah’s great victory over death and the grave is the firstfruits of the full harvest to come, when all believers will likewise experience the power of His Resurrection.

13:15 east wind. This refers to Assyria. Cf. 12:1

13:16 Samaria. See note on 7:1. fall . . . dashed . . . ripped. The shocking atrocities mentioned were in keeping with brutalities characteristic of the Assyrians (cf. 2 Kin. 17:5; Is. 13:6; Amos 1:13; Nah. 3:10).

14:1, 2 Israel was invited to return, bringing words of repentance accompanied with obedience, repaying God’s gracious acceptance of them with genuine “sacrifices of our lips” (cf. Heb. 13:15). God condemns lipservice worship (Is. 29:13; Matt. 15:8).

14:3 fatherless. Dependence on other nations, military might, and idols left Israel as though an orphan. God repeatedly demanded mercy for the orphan (cf. Ex. 22:22; Deut. 10:18); consequently, Israel could expect to receive His compassion (cf. Luke 15:17–20).

14:4–8 The ultimate fulfillment of these blessings must be millennial, since Israel has not, nor will not, repented in the manner of verses 2 and 3 until the end of the Great Tribulation (cf. Zech. 12:10–13:1). The Lord’s love is beautifully presented in metaphors taken from the morning dew, the lily, the cedars of Lebanon, the olive tree, grain, the grapevine, and the cypress tree.

14:4 backsliding. See note on Proverbs 14:14.

14:7 Their scent . . . like the wine of Lebanon. Their scent (lit. “remembrance”) denotes worldwide fame and admiration.

14:8 The Lord, not idols, will care for Israel. He, not Israel, is the tree providing shelter and prosperity, the “green cypress tree” from whom her fruitfulness would come.

14:9 Representative of the book’s theme, Hosea’s epilogue concludes the prophecy by presenting the reader with two ways of living, obediently or disobediently (cf. Deut. 30:19, 20; Ps. 1). He appeals to all readers to be wise, to choose the Lord’s way, because His ways are right (cf. Ps. 107:43; Eccl. 12:13, 14).

Further Study

Feinberg, Charles L. The Minor Prophets. Chicago: Moody, 1980.

Wood, Leon. Hosea, in Expositor’s Bible Commentary. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1985.