Deuteronomy 18:1–22
18 “The Levitical priests, all the tribe of Levi, shall have no portion or inheritance with Israel. They shall eat the Lord’s food offerings1 as their2 inheritance. 2 They shall have no inheritance among their brothers; the Lord is their inheritance, as he promised them. 3 And this shall be the priests’ due from the people, from those offering a sacrifice, whether an ox or a sheep: they shall give to the priest the shoulder and the two cheeks and the stomach. 4 The firstfruits of your grain, of your wine and of your oil, and the first fleece of your sheep, you shall give him. 5 For the Lord your God has chosen him out of all your tribes to stand and minister in the name of the Lord, him and his sons for all time.
6 “And if a Levite comes from any of your towns out of all Israel, where he lives—and he may come when he desires3—to the place that the Lord will choose, 7 and ministers in the name of the Lord his God, like all his fellow Levites who stand to minister there before the Lord, 8 then he may have equal portions to eat, besides what he receives from the sale of his patrimony.4
9 “When you come into the land that the Lord your God is giving you, you shall not learn to follow the abominable practices of those nations. 10 There shall not be found among you anyone who burns his son or his daughter as an offering,5 anyone who practices divination or tells fortunes or interprets omens, or a sorcerer 11 or a charmer or a medium or a necromancer or one who inquires of the dead, 12 for whoever does these things is an abomination to the Lord. And because of these abominations the Lord your God is driving them out before you. 13 You shall be blameless before the Lord your God, 14 for these nations, which you are about to dispossess, listen to fortune-tellers and to diviners. But as for you, the Lord your God has not allowed you to do this.
15 “The Lord your God will raise up for you a prophet like me from among you, from your brothers—it is to him you shall listen— 16 just as you desired of the Lord your God at Horeb on the day of the assembly, when you said, ‘Let me not hear again the voice of the Lord my God or see this great fire any more, lest I die.’ 17 And the Lord said to me, ‘They are right in what they have spoken. 18 I will raise up for them a prophet like you from among their brothers. And I will put my words in his mouth, and he shall speak to them all that I command him. 19 And whoever will not listen to my words that he shall speak in my name, I myself will require it of him. 20 But the prophet who presumes to speak a word in my name that I have not commanded him to speak, or6 who speaks in the name of other gods, that same prophet shall die.’ 21 And if you say in your heart, ‘How may we know the word that the Lord has not spoken?’— 22 when a prophet speaks in the name of the Lord, if the word does not come to pass or come true, that is a word that the Lord has not spoken; the prophet has spoken it presumptuously. You need not be afraid of him.”
1 Or the offerings by fire to the Lord 2 Hebrew his 3 Or lives—if he comes enthusiastically 4 The meaning of the Hebrew is uncertain 5 Hebrew makes his son or his daughter pass through the fire 6 Or and
Section Overview: Priests and Prophets
Priests and prophets are important leaders alongside their political and judicial counterparts. Every society must deal with two issues. One is the relationship of the individual to society; the second is the alignment of society with the natural world. The first issue is settled by law and government; the second is resolved by belief. The two issues are intimately related. Laws and government of a society are wholly dependent on what moderns call a “metanarrative,” namely, those beliefs used to interpret all other phenomena. Every society has a collective belief that serves as the basis for its collective values. In Israel, the basis of law and government was determined by divine revelation. Moses now turns to the means by which divine revelation is to function in Israel.
One aspect of revelation is to make regular confession of Yahweh as the sovereign and ever-present Lord of the covenant. The confession of their incomparable God is made through the tabernacle and involves every aspect of daily life. The tribe of Levi is devoted to serving the confessions of Israel through the tent of meeting. Moses therefore turns his attention to provisions for the Levitical priests. Their God is known through his words and deeds as mediated by Moses. Provision must also be made for the prophetic function of Moses to continue. While Deuteronomy limits the authority of kings, the authority of the prophet is strengthened.
Section Outline
II.C. Exposition of This Torah (12:1–25:19) . . .
2. Regulations for Community Life (16:18–18:22) . . .
c. Provisions for Levitical Priests (18:1–8)
d. Prophetic Authority (18:9–22)
(1) Prohibition of Magical Rites (18:9–14)
(2) Prophets to Succeed Moses (18:15–22)
Response
Postmodern questions begin with authentication of what is believed to be true. What validates the choice of belief held by an individual or society? In practice, controlling belief systems are determined simply by power. The epistemological assertion of Western societies demands the irrational proposition that no knowledge is possible outside of what is perceptible by the independent human mind and the senses. If this is denied in theory, it is nevertheless invariably held in practice. Evidence of realities outside of phenomena that can be perceived by the senses is undeniable. Postmodernist denial stems from the hubris of humans’ adamantly asserting the nonexistence of anything greater than themselves. The ancients might have elevated themselves to the status of deity, but they were never so irrational as to think that no knowledge or being could exist outside of what they could perceive. The only question was how to access such knowledge, since it would be vital to human well-being. In Israel, the only legitimate means of receiving the knowledge necessary for human decision and conduct was revelation through a prophet in the tradition of Moses. This was authenticated by the revelatory encounter at Mount Sinai, where the Holy One chose in mercy to reveal himself in a sensory manner through darkness, lightning, the sound of a voice, and a written document.
The holy was communicated and taught through the practice of ritual, which is appropriately modified according to circumstance. Transformation enables the goal of the confession and way of life to be achieved in changing situations. Centralization was the right step for the temple confessions of Israel. It brought cohesion to the disparate parts of the country and unified the tribes in one single assembly. This had not been possible from the time of the wilderness until the coming of the kingdom. Moses anticipates this necessity; his instructions in covenant renewal reflect differing emphases than those of earlier times, with changes in practice. This is not denial of the preceding but rather empowering continuation. Christian rituals of baptism and communion are themselves modifications of previous rituals, through Christ’s command, that inform the new practices so that their significance can be fully understood. It is unfortunate that much of Christian preaching makes no reference to the antecedents from which these practices emerged and the ways in which they continue the confessions of the past.
The revelation received by Moses at Sinai was unique. There was no other prophet like him, due to this circumstance (Deut. 34:10). Moses was more than a prophet; he was a man uniquely called by God. Sinai was the great revelatory moment in the history of Israel. The belief continued, however, that there would be a prophet like Moses. In his sermon at the healing of a lame man, Peter calls for repentance for cleansing of sin, saying that this would make possible the times of renewal signified by this miracle (Acts 3:19–23). This renewal would come through Jesus, the one who had suffered for them and the fulfillment of the prophet like Moses, who would arise from the people. Failure to trust him would constitute removal from the congregation. For Peter, Mount Sinai and the Mount of Transfiguration (Luke 9:28–32) are the two great moments authenticating divine revelation, the first established by Moses and the second by a prophet like Moses (2 Pet. 1:16–18). All other revelation of any time is subordinated to these two great revelatory periods. All other revelation is more circumstantial, it does not add to the truth of what has been received. Jesus does not repeat the truth of Moses; it remains forever necessary, but Jesus does fulfill it in the new covenant, which establishes forever the relationship of God with his people.
Or the offerings by fire to the Lord
Hebrew his
Or lives—if he comes enthusiastically
The meaning of the Hebrew is uncertain
Hebrew makes his son or his daughter pass through the fire
Or and
18:1–8 Establishing one central place of worship has the greatest of implications for the function of the Levites. The assignments of the Levites in the wilderness were very specific. A census was taken of the three sons of Levi: Gershon, Kohath, and Merari (Num. 3:17). In that context, their duties were specifically assigned. The tribes of Gershon and Merari had primary responsibility for guarding the tabernacle and providing security for all the rituals associated with it (Num. 3:7, 25, 36). The sons of Kohath were responsible for the porterage of the tabernacle (Num. 4:47). These duties were kept separate from the function of the priests responsible for the daily ritual of the tabernacle, which were limited to the sons of Aaron (Num. 3:3–4). This segmentation of duties would continue when Israel entered the Promised Land. The movements of the tabernacle are known only incidentally, but it is present at Shiloh and Gibeon before being placed permanently inside the temple (Josh. 18:1; 19:51; 1 Chron. 16:39–40). The fundraising of Joash includes provision for the tent of the testimony (2 Chron. 24:6). Whatever the fortunes of the tabernacle, the role of the Levites would change after settlement in the Promised Land. Their duties may be assumed to have been transferred to the various local places of worship Israel establishes before the centralization prescribed in Deuteronomy. Limiting worship to one center necessarily changes the duties of the Levites as well as their compensation. Some of these changes may be observed in the instructions Moses gives in Deuteronomy.
According to Deuteronomy, the entire tribe of Levi is qualified to serve as priests; they are referred to as Levitical priests, a designation not found elsewhere in the Pentateuch. The tribe of Levi does not have an allotted territory. At the time of entry into the Promised Land, a total of forty-eight cities and surrounding territory are assigned to the Levites (Num. 35:1–8; Josh. 21:1–42). There is no mention of these cities in Deuteronomy. The function of Levitical cities changes with the coming of centralized worship, since the duties of the Levites in the countryside would be significantly reduced. The allotments for the Levites and their duties in Deuteronomy conform to their description as Levitical priests. In Deuteronomy, all the Levites are to receive the Lord’s offerings by fire as their portion (“the Lord’s food offerings”). These take the place of the Levites’ inheritance. In the wilderness, these offerings by fire were assigned to Aaron and his descendants (Num. 18:8–10) and designated as most holy. Deuteronomy makes the distinction between those Levites serving as priests and those with the right to do so (18:6–8). It may be that Deuteronomy assumes the priestly distinctions found in the wilderness instructions, but the explanations of Deuteronomy at minimum imply changes of practice in a different time and place.
The allotments of the priests fall into three categories (vv. 3–4): food and drink, oil, and material for clothing (the first shearing). Oil is used in eating, cooking, lighting, and healing. Since some of the endowments of food come from sacrificial animals, these could be given to the Levites only when they are serving as priests. The portion of the animal given is specified as the right foreleg (the shoulder to the knee), the jowls (including the tongue), and the maw (the fourth stomach). The priests also receive the first products of the grain, wine, oil, and wool. Giving these to the priests is a part of the confession that all these provisions are a gift from God. They are necessary as an act of faith. The service of the Lord would entail ministry at the temple in the offering of sacrifices and the pronouncing of blessings (v. 5). Moses does not here specify differing assignments from those made in the wilderness.
Any Levite could come to Jerusalem to serve at the temple (vv. 6–8). If a Levite makes such a move, “he may have equal portions to eat.” The translation of the ESV is to be followed, contrary to that of many other English versions. The right to minister at the established central place is assumed. The apodosis of the conditional sentence, according to Hebrew sentence structure, deals with their endowments, not the right to serve. They are entitled to equal shares irrespective of other income they may receive. The vocabulary concerning the sale of ancestral property is ambiguous; it may be income from Levitical properties or an inheritance.
18:9–14 The importance of divination in the ancient world is evident in the vast number of omen collections and related cuneiform texts that have been preserved. Akkadian divination was considered a major intellectual achievement. These texts were translated into various languages, such as Elamite, Hittite, and Hurrian, and offer an abundance of material concerning the various techniques of divination. These all represent a means of communication with forces that shape the individual as well as the group. Such information was a means of averting evil or harm. Two techniques are known in Mesopotamia: operational and magical. Communication could take place through a binary answer (yes or no) or through a code accepted by both the deity and the diviner. In operational divination, answers could come through the spreading of oil poured into water or through the shape of smoke emitted from a censer. Magical techniques are effects of natural phenomena: wind, thunder, movements of stars, or effects on the external or internal features of animals. Records were kept of unusual acts of animals or happenings in the sky and were developed into a science for understanding their significance for humans. The gods could be entreated to write their message within the entrails of an animal. The internal organs of the selected animals would then be examined for any unusual features (a process known as extispicy), all of which could be determined through the maintenance of detailed records. Many signs are referred to as “liver omens,” since the liver was considered the seat of the emotions. These constitute the largest number of omen texts by far. Dream interpretations are quite rare among Akkadian tablets, and shamanism (communication with spirits) is unknown. Mesopotamia is famed for the royal art of astrology, which goes back to the Old Babylonian period and is very prominent in the library of Assurbanipal. Horoscopes, which deal with one’s date of birth, are only known much later, from the fifth to the third centuries BC.
Deuteronomy considers all forms of divination to be an abomination. Moses does not describe specific methods of receiving messages from other powers; all are condemned under the general prohibition of “divination” (v. 10). The specific practices of the various terms are never given and are not self-evident. The term “tells fortunes” usually refers to clouds (Hb. ʿnn); some sign is used as an omen. “Interprets omens” derives from a root that ordinarily means snake (nahash) and refers to some means of seeking signs. “Sorcerer” (keshef) in Akkadian refers to one who practices witchcraft, someone who uses spells, charms, or incantations to manipulate people. “Charmer” translates the word heber (“bind”); a similar Akkadian word means to bind magically as a type of sorcery. Necromancy is the practice of making inquiry through the spirits of deceased persons. This was done through a “medium” know in Hebrew as an ʾob. Consultations with the dead were also made through a yiddeʿoni (“necromancer”), someone familiar with spirits. These terms are sometimes translated interchangeably.
Distinct from all these practices is one who “burns his son or his daughter as an offering.” The Hebrew expression means to “pass through the fire” (cf. ESV mg.). It may be that child sacrifice was practiced in Israel, as it certainly was among the Moabites. But human sacrifice is not specifically connoted by this expression. The archaeological and linguistic evidence indicates that this was a ritual cremation that took place at a tophet, a place outside the city wall sometimes used for special status burials. Those buried at these places were primarily premature, stillborn, or very young infants. The ritual cremation of a deceased child was a kind of human sacrifice that at least in some cases marked dedication to a deity (Jer. 32:35; 2 Kings 16:3; 17:17; 21:6; 23:10). The practice is related to dedication to Molech or the exercise of divination.
18:15–22 Guidance for life in Israel comes through the God of the covenant. He does not speak through any of the means used by the nations. God reveals himself to Israel through the Torah mediated through Moses. Israel will have need for revelation once Moses is no longer with them. Thus he makes provision for his office to continue through prophets like himself.
Prophecy is the only means of mediating the divine word. Moses recalls the experience of Mount Sinai, where the people were terrified at the divine appearance. God approved of their request for a mediator. Those who succeed Moses in this office will not be inferior in authority, though Moses holds a unique status as the prophet of Israel. Any Israelite who disregards prophetic authority will be held accountable. In addition, anyone who speaks presumptively as a prophet but leads people away from the revelation of Moses must be put to death. A prophet might speak falsely in two different ways (Deut. 18:20): (1) a word might be spoken that God has not given, or (2) a prophecy might be given in the name of other gods.
Any prophets who contradicts the revelation received at Sinai must immediately be identified as false. Those who prophesy on other matters and do not use any of the usual methods of divination could not be identified immediately. The test of a true prophet is that his words must also stand the test of time. Later prophets such as Isaiah serve more as reformers seeking to bring the people back to the covenant. Isaiah’s prophecy of total exile did not come true in his lifetime, but even in his lifetime he could be recognized as one who truly spoke the word of God. Other prophecies did come true in his lifetime, such as the ending of the Assyrian siege in the days of Hezekiah.
The practice of divination in Israel is dangerous because it is a means of exercising supernatural power. The Egyptian magicians were able to duplicate the signs Moses gave (Ex. 7:8–11). Israel is not to rely upon such powers. Their loyalty is to be with Yahweh exclusively (Deut. 18:13). Consulting with the spirits of the dead is also a denial of trust in God by seeking guidance from some other authority.