Greco-Roman and Jewish letters typically opened with tripartite salutations in the third person, noting the sender, recipient, and greetings (Gk “chairein”) as in Papyrus Yadin 52; 1 Macc 13.36. Jewish letters sometimes add “eirēnēn agathēn” “good peace” (NRSV “true peace”; 2 Macc 1.1). 1:Apostle (Gk “apostolos”; Heb “šālûaḥ”; cf. 1 Kings 14.6), lit., “one sent,” is an authorized representative performing a specific function (e.g., m. Ber. 5.5, “A man’s agent [Heb “šālûaḥ”] is like himself”). Promise of life, anticipating 2.18, reflects the hope of resurrection and realization of the world-to-come (Heb “ʿolam ha-baʾ”). See 1 En. 48.4, where the Son of Man will become the “light of the Gentiles, and the hope of those who are troubled of heart.” See also LXX Ps 59.5; 2 Macc 2.18. 2:Timothy, Gk “honoring God,” “in God’s honor,” or “honored by God.” Beloved, denoting a chosen status among Paul’s disciples. Cf. 1 Cor 4.17, “My beloved and faithful child.” 1 Tim 1.2, “my loyal child in the faith”; Child, meaning student or disciple, as frequent in biblical wisdom literature (e.g., Prov 4.1); see b. Sanh. 19b, “He who teaches the son of his neighbor the Torah, Scripture ascribes it to him as if he had begotten him.” Grace, Gk “charis,” Heb “ḥēn,” “graciousness, favor” (e.g., Gen 6.8; Ex 33.12). Mercy, Gk “eleos,” “compassion,” Heb “ḥesed,” “covenantal loyalty, loving-kindness, steadfast love” (see Ps 25.6). Peace, Gk “eirēnē,” Heb “shalom.”

3:Clear conscience, Gk “athara syneidēsei” reflects the confluence between faith and practice. The Pastoral Epistles contrast the “good” (1 Tim 1.5,19) and “clear” (1 Tim 3.9) conscience of the faithful believer with the “corrupted” (Titus 1.15) or “seared with a hot iron” (1 Tim 4.2) consciousness of the unbelievers. As my ancestors (Gk “apo progonōn”), i.e., “in the same way as my (Jewish) ancestors,” affirming the continuity of Jewish beliefs with Paul’s teaching. The reference could also be to Paul’s own parents. 4:Tears, Acts 20.36–38; Josephus, Life 420. 5:Sincere faith, literally, “an unhypocritical faith in you.” Faith, occurring over fifty times in the Pastorals, “faith” (Gk “pistis”) and related words are key components of the theological vocabulary of this corpus. Faith appears in virtue lists (1 Tim 1.5,19; 2.7; 4.6; 2 Tim 1.13; 2.22; 3.10–11) and its meanings include doctrinal statements (1 Tim 4.6; 5.8; See also Gal 1.23) and fidelity (1 Tim 1.14; 2.15; 5.12). The equivalent word in the Tanakh (“emunah”) connotes “trustworthiness.” In rabbinic Judaism, faith is related to trust in God. For example, Mek. Ex. 14.31 reads, “… whosoever accepts even one single commandment with true faith is deserving of having the Holy Spirit rest upon him … our father Abraham inherited both this world and the world to come only as a reward for the faith with which he believed, as it is said: ‘And he believed in the Lord’” (Gen 15.6). Faith that lived first in your grandmother, it is not clear whether the author means that she was a believer in Jesus, or whether she was simply a faithful Jew. Lois and your mother Eunice, both Jewish, while Timothy’s father was Greek (Acts 16.1).

6:Rekindle, lit., “set on flame again.” Gift of God, Gk “charisma”; here the commission for service to the gospel. Laying on of my hands, see 1 Tim 4.14 (speaking of the elders [Gk “presbyteroi”]). The Heb verb “sāmah” encompasses the symbolic gesture associated with blessings (Gen 48.14), consecration of a person assuming religious or leadership functions (Num 8.5–15; 27.18–23); and the transfer of God’s spirit (see esp. Deut 34.9, “Joshua son of Nun was full of the spirit of wisdom, because Moses had laid his hands on him.” Rabbinic ordination was later called “semikhah,” lit., “laying [of hands],” representing the idea that ordination was passed from teacher to student. In his undisputed letters, Paul does not mention this ritual means of conveying “charisma.” 7:Spirit of cowardice … power, see Deut 31.8; Josh 1.9; Sir 34.14–16; Rom 8.15; in Greek thought, having “neither fear nor cowardice” was a virtue of both military and political leaders (Homer, Iliad, 2,235; Plato, Protagoras, 360). Love is the most important spiritual gift in the Pauline tradition (Rom 5.5; 1 Cor 12.31b–14.1; 2 Tim 1.13; 2.22; 3.10). 8:Do not be ashamed, an important theme (1.12,16; 2.15) and a common form of exhortation, e.g., “Do not be ashamed of the law of the Most High and his covenant,” Sir 42.2; see also Sir 4.26; 42.1. Testimony … prisoner, testifying or witnessing (Gk “martyrion”) to Jesus’ crucifixion by Roman authorities and Paul’s imprisonment in Rome would suggest that the followers of the gospel were considered the followers of criminals. Suffering for the gospel, in the same way that Jesus and Paul suffered as faithful servants for the gospel (Gk “euangelion,” lit., “good news”; see 2 Tim 2.8–10). 9:Saved us, salvation in the Pauline tradition is realized both in hope (Rom 8.24), belief and the seal of the Spirit (Eph 1.13; 2.8; see also 2 Cor 6.2), when believers persevere (1 Cor 1.18; 15.2) and in a future consummation (Rom 13.11; 1 Cor 3.15; 5.5; 2 Cor 5.10) Works … grace, a contrast characterizing Paul’s understanding of salvation based not on human merits or actions, but on God’s grace (Rom 3.21–27; Gal 2.15–21). See “Paul and Judaism,” p. 633. Ages began, before the creation of the world, see Eph 1.4. 10:Revealed, denoting the setting in motion of the age of salvation; see 1 Tim 3.16. Appearing, see 2 Thess 2.8; 1 Tim 6.14; 2 Tim 4.1,8; Titus 2.13. Savior, also an epithet of emperors. Abolished death … brought life, Jesus’ resurrection has nullified the power of death, cf. 1 Cor 15.26; 2 Cor 4.10. 13:Sound teaching, an expression characteristic of the Pastoral Epistles (4.3; 1 Tim 1.10; 6.3; Titus 1.9; 2.1). In his authentic epistles, Paul typically argues his points rather than simply asserting them, as here. 14:Holy Spirit living in us, Rom 8.9,11; 1 Cor 3.16.

15:Asia, a Roman province (modern-day Turkey). Phygelus and Hermogenes, not mentioned elsewhere. 16:Onesiphorus, see 4.19, lived in Ephesus; although he is not mentioned elsewhere in the NT, he appears in the apocryphal Acts of Paul and Thecla (3.2–7; 15.23–26,42), which places him in Iconium. Chain, referring to Paul’s imprisonment; see Acts 28.20.

1:Child, see 1.2n. 2:Through many witnesses, the Gk preposition “dia” is ambiguous; rendering the phrase as “in the presence of many witnesses” better reinforces the connection between Paul and Timothy. 3:Soldier, the soldier, athlete, and the farmer exemplify commitment, discipline, and preparedness (see 1 Cor 9.7,24; Eph 6.11–17). 4:Everyday affairs, here could also mean “do business, trade.” See Philo, Spec. Laws 2.65 and Sifre Deut. 357; b. Rosh Ha-Shanah 31b; b. Sanh. 41a, “For 40 years he (Johanan b. Zakkai) was in business, 40 years he studied, and 40 years he taught.” 5:Athlete, Eleazar the martyr in 4 Macc 6.10 is also portrayed as an athlete. 6:Farmer … first share of the crops, see Deut 20.6; 1 Cor 9.7. M. B. Metz. 7.2 notes, “And these may eat, according to the Torah: The one who works with what is attached to the ground when the labor finished; and with what is detached from the ground [even] before its work is completed—if it is something that grows from the ground.” 7:Give you understanding, see Prov 2.6.

8:Raised from the dead, see Rom 1.3–4; 2.17–18. David, the Messiah was expected to be a descendant of King David (Isa 11.1; Jer 23.5–6; Jn 7.42). The fifteenth blessing of the Amidah expresses the Jewish wish in redemption through a Davidic messiah: “Make the Branch of David to sprout quickly, and let his horn be exalted by your salvation, for we await your salvation all the day. Blessed art you, O Lord, who makes the horn of salvation to sprout.” 9:Suffer hardship, see 1.8n. Chained, see 1.16. Criminal, Gk “kakourgos,” see Lk 23.32,33,39, where the term describes the men crucified with Jesus. 10:Elect, Gk “chosen,” see Isa 65.9,15; Ps 88.3; 104.6; 1 Chr 16.13; Rom 9.11; 11.5,7,28 (referring to Israel, here in Romans meaning the Jewish people); 1 Thess 1.4; 1 Pet 2.9; 2 Pet 1.10 (referring to the church). 11:Saying is sure, Gk “pistos ho logos,” “a trustworthy saying,” a distinctive phrase characteristic of the Pastoral Epistles (1 Tim 1.15; 3.1; 4.9; Titus 3.8); see 1.13n. Have died … will also live, see Rom 6.5. 12:Endure, Gk “hypomenomen” the LXX’s most common translation of Heb “qāwāh,” “to hope,” used for those who remain faithful and will receive their reward (Ps 25.3,5; 27.14; 33.20; 37.9). Reign, see Rev 3.21. Deny us, see Mt 10.33; Lk 12.8–9. 13: See Rom 3.3–4; 1 Cor 10.13; 1 Thess 5.24; Rev 19.11.

17:Hymenaeus, condemned also in 1 Tim 1.20. Philetus (“beloved”), not attested elsewhere in the NT. 18:Resurrection has already taken place, the resurrection of the believers, which they argued, had already taken place probably at the moment of baptism. One logical result of claiming present salvation was the view that resurrection was also present, and thus that the bodies of believers were somehow either transformed or now free from earthly constraints (including moral behavior); the technical term for this view is “realized eschatology.” See 1 Cor 4.8; 15.12. 19:The Lord knows those who are his, see Num 16.5[LXX]. Calls on the name of the Lord, see Isa 26.13[LXX]; Joel 3.5[LXX], and for more general references Gen 13.4; 21.33; 1 Kings 18.24 (i.e., to pray). Turn away from wickedness, see Isa 52.11; Prov 3.7; Sir 17.26. 20–21:Cleanse themselves, the author is speaking of a moral status, not ritual purity. Special … ordinary, Gk “timēn … atimian,” lit., “honor” and “dishonor.” The difference between “honorable” and “dishonorable” offspring lies in the difference between those who fear the Lord and those who break the commandments (Sir 10.19). 22:Pure heart (Gk “katharas kardias”; Heb “lē āhôr”), see Ps 51.10; Prov 22.11; “clean and without sin” (Prov 20.9). The psalmist applies the distinction between “clean” and “unclean” metaphorically to the heart, the seat of thought and will in the Tanakh. 24:Lord’s servant, Titus 1.1 (Gk “doulon de kyriou”; Heb “ʿee yhwh”) denotes the patriarchs Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob (Gen 24.14; 26.24; Ezek 37.25), priests (Ps 134.1; 135.1–2), and prophets (Am 3.7). Moses “my servant” (Josh 1.2) and King David hold a special place in this category (1 Sam 19.4; 1 Kings 3.6), and God also calls Israel “my servant” (see Isa 41.8). Common in Paul is “servant of Christ” (Rom 1.1; Gal 1.10; Phil 1.1). Apt teacher, see Philo, Rewards 27. 25:Correcting opponents with gentleness, Titus 1.9,13. See 1QS 5.24–25, “Each man is to reprove his fellow in truth, humility and loving-kindness,” based on Lev 19.17. Know the truth (Gk “epignōsin alētheias”), idiomatic expression characteristic of the Pastoral Epistles (3.7; 1 Tim 2.4; Titus 1.1). 26:Devil, Gk “diabolou” is used in Eph 4.27; 6.11; 1 Tim 3.6–7,11; 2 Tim 3.3; Titus 2.3 and elsewhere. “Satan” is also used (1 Tim 1.20). Believers who abandoned the faith are said to have fallen back into the discipleship of Satan (1 Cor 5.5 and 1 Tim 5.15).

1:Last days, see Isa 2.2; Jer 23.20; Hos 3.5; Mic 4.1; increasing depravity is a sign of the last days, e.g., 1 En. 91.5 observes: “… violence must increase on the earth, and a great chastisement be executed on the earth, and all unrighteousness come to an end.” According to the later tradition found in b. Sanh. 98a, “Rabbi Yochanan said: ‘The Son of David will not come except in a generation which is either completely righteous or completely guilty.’” 2–4: Vice lists were common in Hellenistic codes of behavior. See Philo, Sacr. 32; Dio Chrys. 1.15–35; 3.40–41; Cf. Rom 13.12–14; 1 Cor 5.10–11; 6.9–10; 2 Cor 12.20–21; Gal 5.19–21; Eph 5.3–5; Col 3.5–8; 1 Tim 1.9; 6.4; Rev 21.7–8.

6–7:Silly women, Gk “gynaikaria,” a derogative diminutive, better “gullible, little women,” perhaps referring to the same group as in 1 Tim 5.14–15 targeted by the false teachers. These women are contrasted with Eunice and Lois in 1.5 and Priscilla and Claudia in 4.19,21. 8:Jannes and Jambres, names given in Jewish tradition to the Egyptian magicians who opposed Moses in Ex 7.11–12 (CD 5.18–19 [“Jannes and his brother”]; Tg. Ps–J. on Ex 1.15; 7.10–12; Num 22.2; see Introduction).

After a list of vices to avoid, the author, in Paul’s name, presents a list of virtues as exemplified by his own life, a model for Timothy to follow. See 1 Cor 11.1; Phil 3.17; see also 2 Thess 3.7,9. 11:Persecutions, see Rom 8.35; 1 Cor 4.12; 2 Cor 11.23–32; 12.10. Antioch, Iconium, and Lystra, see Acts 13.14–14.23. 12:Will be persecuted, early Christian teaching emphasized the suffering of the faithful. See Mt 10.23; Jn 15.20; Acts 7.52; 1 Pet 4.12.

15:From childhood, in rabbinic tradition, Torah instruction begins when children were five (m. Avot 5.21) or six/seven years old (b. B. Bat. 21a), but Rabbi Joshua’s mother is praised (m. Avot 2.8) because “she never removed his cradle from the study hall” (y. Yeb. 1.6,3a). The Tanakh highlights the importance of teaching children (e.g., Deut 11.19); see also Eph 6.4. Sacred writings (Gk “hiera grammata”), designates the incipient Jewish Bible, as in Philo (Life of Moses 2.290,292) and Josephus (Ant. 1.13; 10.210). For salvation, Lk 1.71,77; Jn 4.22; 5.39. 16:All scripture, likely referring to the LXX. An alternative translation is: “Every/all … inspired/given by God’s Scripture is also useful …” See 2 Pet 1.21. 17:Everyone who belongs to God, Gk “ho tou theou anthropos,” a person of God/man of God, see LXX Deut 33.1; Josh 10.14; 14.6; Judg 13.6; 1 Sam 2.27; 9.6–10; 1 Kings 13.5; 14.3; 2 Chr 11.2; 30.16, and elsewhere in the LXX.

1:Judge the living and the dead, Rom 2.16; 2 Cor 5.10. His appearing, a reference to what is known as the “Second Coming.” 3:Sound doctrine, lit., “healthy teaching.” 4:Myths, as the opposite of true teaching or philosophy. Philo uses the term similarly (On the Creation 157; Worse 125; Abr. 243; Spec. Laws 4.178). See 1 Tim 1.4; 4.7; Titus 1.14; 2 Pet 1.16. 5:Evangelist, one who announces the gospel (Acts 2.18; 8.4,12,35,40) mentioned together with apostles, prophets, pastors, and teachers as one of the gifts Christ gives to the church in Eph 4.11.

6:Libation, Gk “spondas,” Heb “nesek,” a technical term for offering libations accompanying sacrifices (Num 28.15; Judg 6.20; 1 Sam 7.6; Isa 57.6; Jer 7.18; 19.13; see also Philo, Drunkenness 152; Josephus, Ant. 6.22); the author derives the term here to signal Paul’s comment in Phil 2.17, “I am being poured out as a libation over the sacrifice and the offering of your faith.” 7:Fought the good fight, 1 Tim 1.18; 6.12. Finished the race, see Acts 20.24; Heb 12.1–2. The faith, for the Pastorals, faith is substantially a set of doctrines (see 1.5n.). 8:Crown, an emblem of victory (1 Cor 9.26) for his faithful life. Lord, the righteous judge, see Jer 11.20; Ps 9.4; 2 Macc 12.6,41; also part of Jewish burial prayers (“O true and righteous judge! Blessed be the true judge, all whose judgments are righteous and true”). That day … his appearing, the fulfillment of the hope for salvation; see LXX Zeph 1.14, “the great day of the Lord,” and 2.11, “The Lord will appear against them.”

10:Demas, see Col 4.14; Philem 24. Crescens, not mentioned elsewhere. Titus, see 2 Cor 2.13; 7.6,13–14; 8.6,16,23; 12.18; Gal 2.1,3; Titus 1.4. 11:Luke, see Col 4.14; Philem 24. Mark, see Acts 12.12; 15.27; Col 4.11; Philem 24. 12:Tychichus, see Col. 4.7; Titus 3.12. 13:Carpus, not mentioned elsewhere. Books, sing. Gk “biblion” and Heb “sēper,” used for individual books of the Bible (Tob 1.1); in the plural is used for groups of writings in the incipient Bible (Dan 9.2; 1 Macc 12.9). Parchments (Gk “membranas”), processed animal leather later used for Torah scrolls and other documents. 14:Alexander, cannot be identified with certainty; see 1 Tim 1.20; someone with this name is also mentioned in Acts 19.33. Pay him back for his deeds, see Ps 61.13[LXX] (“Because you will repay each according to his deeds”); Ps 27.4[LXX]; Prov 24.12; Pss. Sol. 95.

16:Defense, reference to an early trial (Acts 23.1–11) or to the first step of the legal procedure that brought Paul to prison. 17:All the Gentiles, God’s salvation encompasses all humanity. See Rom 15.11 and Gen 18.18; 22.18. Lion’s mouth, an echo of Ps 22.22[LXX] (“save me from the lion’s mouth”); see also Dan 6.20,22[LXX]; 4 Macc 18.13. 18:The Lord will rescue me, Gk “rhyomai,” expressing deliverance. Liberation from harm and oppression is a central component of biblical theology (see Ex 6.6; 14.30; Judg 6.9; Ps 7.1; 17.13; 34.18) and an essential component of prayers in both Judaism and Christianity (Mt 6.13; Did. 8.2; 10.5; b. Ber. 16b). Heavenly kingdom, see Ps 103.9; Mt 18.3; 19.23. In rabbinic literature, “malkut shamayim,” “the dominion of heaven,” becomes a common term; see b. Ber. 13a. Glory forever, traditional doxology also used in Gal 1.5 (cf. Ps 72.19; 104.31; 111.3; Pr Man 15; 4 Macc 18.24; Rom 11.36; 16.27; Heb 13.21; 1 Pet 4.11). 19:Prisca and Aquila, Paul’s co-workers and travel companions (Prisca is a variant of Priscilla); see Acts 18.2–3,18,26; Rom 16.3–4; 1 Cor 16.19. Onesiphorus, cf. 2 Tim 1.16–18. 20:Erastus, see Acts 19.22; Rom 16.23; Trophimus, see Acts 20.4–5; 21.29. 21:Before winter, the unsafe season for sea travel began after Sukkot, the Feast of Booths, in the early fall. “The rabbis say, ‘Who makes a path in the Sea, from Shavuot (Pentecost) to Sukkot (Tabernacles), and in great waters a trail, from Sukkot (Tishrei, September–October) to Hanukkah (Kislev, December)’” (y. Shabb. 2.6). Eubulus … Claudia, not mentioned elsewhere. 22:Your spirit, “your” is here singular and refers to Timothy. Grace be with you, is plural and refers to the community (see the earlier formula “the Lord be with you” in Judg 6.12; Ruth 2.4).