The Letter of Paul to Titus
Name, Authorship, and Background
The Letter to Titus, along with 1 and 2 Timothy, constitute the Pastoral Epistles, so named because they impart practical advice, including leadership requirements, along with doctrinal information. (For further background on these letters, see the introduction to 1 Timothy). The letter purports to be written by Paul to Titus, a Greek (i.e., Gentile) co-worker who acted as an emissary in Paul’s correspondence with the Corinthians (2 Cor 8.23) and accompanied Paul to Jerusalem (Gal 2.1–3).
The Pastoral Epistles circulated as a collection and are mentioned by many of the early Christian theologians (i.e., the “church fathers”), including Polycarp (Phil.), Tertullian (Marc. 5.21), and Jerome (On Titus), but not all accepted their claims of Pauline authorship. Tatian accepts Titus but not Timothy, Marcion excludes all three, and the epistles are absent from one of the oldest Greek biblical manuscripts, the fourth-century Codex Vaticanus. Yet by the fourth century, Titus was widely accepted as Pauline. In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, scholars revisited the question of authorship. Currently, the consensus is that Titus is pseudonymous—an anonymous Christian leader wrote the letter in Paul’s name in order to direct a community struggling with issues of definition and organization; such pseudonymous authorship was frequent in antiquity. Based upon analyses of language and content, the letter is usually dated to the beginning of the second century ce.
Structure and Interpretation
After greeting “Titus” (1.1–4), the author sketches how the community should be organized and outlines the qualifications for elders and bishops (1.5–9). Then follows a denunciation of certain community members (1.10–16; see 3.8b–11). The nascent communities sought to establish institutions that would preserve their view of orthodoxy. The author warns his followers to avoid alternative teachings and advises shunning those who remain divisive.
The epistle combines instruction on community organization with teaching on household order and obedience, including the paramount Hellenistic values of self-control and perfect submission of women and slaves (2.1–10). The epistle then connects good behavior with salvific actions of God (2.11–3.8a). Since churches developed out of gatherings in private homes, and since in the Roman world the family was seen as a microcosm of the state, the family and the community reflected one another. Social organization is thus linked to ethical behavior and given theological significance.
A distinguishing characteristic of the Pastoral Epistles, especially evident in Titus, is the use of the title “Savior” to describe both God and Jesus. In a key phrase, the letter speaks of waiting for “the manifestation of the glory of our great God and Savior, Jesus Christ” (2.13). The words “manifestation” (Gk epiphaneia) and “Savior” (Gk soteros) in their Hellenistic context typically refer to deities and emperors. For example, an Ephesian inscription from 48 bce calls Julius Caesar “god made manifest [Gk epophane], of Ares and Aphrodite, the common savior [Gk sotera] of human life.” Furthermore, while the claim that Jesus is God is rare in the New Testament—although it is suggested (e.g., Jn 1.1)— it will become a central Christian doctrine, articulated by the Councils of Nicaea (325 ce) and Chalcedon (451 ce).
Guide to Reading
Titus emerges out of a confluence of Hellenistic culture and Jewish Scriptures. “Paul” calls himself a “servant of God” who labors for “God’s elect” (1.1). The title “servant of God,” “servant of the Lord,” or simply “servant” referring to one who serves God appears frequently in the Septuagint (Gk pais/doulos tou theou; pais/doulos kuriou), reflecting the Hebrew Bible (Heb eved ha-Elohim; eved YHWH), in reference to the patriarchs, Moses, Elijah, David, and Jonah, among others. The phrase “God’s elect” also draws on themes from the Jewish Scriptures (e.g., Isa 43.20; 45.4; 65.9; Ps 105.6; 106.5). Jesus’ followers, regardless of background, saw themselves as the true inheritors of the Jewish covenant.
The letter stresses order and unity, and it identifies a rebellious group as “of the circumcision” (1.10), accusing them of propagating “Jewish myths” and “commandments of those who reject the truth” (1.14). The passage continues with the language of purity and defilement (1.15–16), perhaps alluding to its rejection of Jewish dietary regulations (as in Rom 14.14,20) or asceticism and celibacy (as expressed in 1 Tim 4.3–4). Whereas Paul addresses challenges from “Judaizers” (see “Judaizers,” p. 637) who taught that Jesus’ Gentile followers should follow Torah practices that distinguished Jews from Gentiles, such as circumcision and dietary restrictions, the Pastorals show little engagement with this issue (see also 1 Tim 1.7). Instead, they focus on erroneous beliefs and improper interpretive methods.
The letter closes by adding “genealogies” and “quarrels about the law” to the list of disagreeable beliefs and behaviors (3.9). The genealogies may be the generational lists that appear in the Jewish Scriptures (Gen 10; 11.10–32; 1 Chr 1–9), and the speculations about them may be similar to those found among the Dead Sea Scrolls (1QapGen), which embellish the biblical lists with “biographical” stories. Alternatively, the genealogies may be of Jesus himself, whose physical lineage was a concern for some (Mt 1.1–17; Lk 3.23–38). Various genealogies of Jesus circulated, and questions concerning them caused dissension (Jerome, On Titus).
It is difficult to determine the ways in which the letter reflects social and historical realities. Whereas both Paul (Gal 2.12) and the author of Titus (1.10) speak of an antagonistic group as “of the circumcision,” the pastoral letter offers no details on the views of this faction; the label seems more an echo of Paul’s language than an actual issue facing the congregation. Nor can we determine the identity of the author’s opponents. The rhetoric of the letter is harsh, likening the writer’s opponents to animals, and it includes an ethnic slur against Cretans (1.11–12). Because the author relies more on name-calling than reasoned argument to discredit opponents, determining the actual views of these opponents, or their identity as Jews or Gentiles, must remain speculative. The letter appears to reflect a time—likely in the late first or early second century—when simply associating a teaching with Judaism was to mark it as unacceptable (see Ignatius, Magn. 8.1; 10.3; Philad. 6.1), whether or not the teaching was actually being promulgated in the synagogues.
Jennifer L. Koosed
1Paul, a servanta of God and an apostle of Jesus Christ, for the sake of the faith of God’s elect and the knowledge of the truth that is in accordance with godliness, 2in the hope of eternal life that God, who never lies, promised before the ages began— 3in due time he revealed his word through the proclamation with which I have been entrusted by the command of God our Savior,
4To Titus, my loyal child in the faith we share:
Graceb and peace from God the Father and Christ Jesus our Savior.
5I left you behind in Crete for this reason, so that you should put in order what remained to be done, and should appoint elders in every town, as I directed you: 6someone who is blameless, married only once,a whose children are believers, not accused of debauchery and not rebellious. 7For a bishop,b as God’s steward, must be blameless; he must not be arrogant or quick-tempered or addicted to wine or violent or greedy for gain; 8but he must be hospitable, a lover of goodness, prudent, upright, devout, and self-controlled. 9He must have a firm grasp of the word that is trustworthy in accordance with the teaching, so that he may be able both to preach with sound doctrine and to refute those who contradict it.
Jewish Myths (Titus 1.14)
The Greek word “mythos” means “legend,” “fable” or “story.” Although originally a neutral term in Greek, the word carries a negative connotation in Jewish and Christian texts alike (Sir 20.19; 2 Clem. 13.3). In some Greek writings, “myths” are frivolous stories about the gods that feature sensual or immoral conduct deemed unbefitting of divinity. Plato, for example, employs this word in his critique of a Cretan story about Zeus’s affair with Ganymede (Laws I.636C-D). The word occurs in the New Testament only in the Pastorals (1 Tim 1.4; 4.7; 2 Tim 4.4; Titus 1.14) and in 2 Pet 1.16. In Titus, myths are promulgated by “many rebellious people,” including “those of the circumcision.” They are erroneous and dangerous.
Elaborations of biblical stories were quite common in Judaism (see 1 En., Jub. and 1QapGen), and such imaginative engagement typified rabbinic Judaism through midrash and aggadah. The myths mentioned in Titus may reflect these Jewish interpretive practices. However, the writer uses prejudicial language—an ethnic slur against Cretans (1.12) and dehumanizing language recommending bridling his opponents like horses to silence them (1.11). Thus, labeling the stories “Jewish” may not accurately describe their contents but rather may simply be a way to disparage them. The myths in question may be Gnostic texts, which also rewrite Jewish Scripture and contain genealogies (see Philo, On the Creation). Another alternative is that the myths are stories about Jesus that the writer deemed inappropriate. Different and diverse gospels circulated in the early centuries of the common era, but most of them were ultimately excluded from the canon (e.g., The Infancy Gospel of Thomas).
10There are also many rebellious people, idle talkers and deceivers, especially those of the circumcision; 11they must be silenced, since they are upsetting whole families by teaching for sordid gain what it is not right to teach. 12It was one of them, their very own prophet, who said,
“Cretans are always liars, vicious brutes, lazy gluttons.”
13That testimony is true. For this reason rebuke them sharply, so that they may become sound in the faith, 14not paying attention to Jewish myths or to commandments of those who reject the truth. 15To the pure all things are pure, but to the corrupt and unbelieving nothing is pure. Their very minds and consciences are corrupted. 16They profess to know God, but they deny him by their actions. They are detestable, disobedient, unfit for any good work.
2But as for you, teach what is consistent with sound doctrine. 2Tell the older men to be temperate, serious, prudent, and sound in faith, in love, and in endurance.
3Likewise, tell the older women to be reverent in behavior, not to be slanderers or slaves to drink; they are to teach what is good, 4so that they may encourage the young women to love their husbands, to love their children, 5to be self-controlled, chaste, good managers of the household, kind, being submissive to their husbands, so that the word of God may not be discredited.
6Likewise, urge the younger men to be self-controlled. 7Show yourself in all respects a model of good works, and in your teaching show integrity, gravity, 8and sound speech that cannot be censured; then any opponent will be put to shame, having nothing evil to say of us.
9Tell slaves to be submissive to their masters and to give satisfaction in every respect; they are not to talk back, 10not to pilfer, but to show complete and perfect fidelity, so that in everything they may be an ornament to the doctrine of God our Savior.
11For the grace of God has appeared, bringing salvation to all,a 12training us to renounce impiety and worldly passions, and in the present age to live lives that are self-controlled, upright, and godly, 13while we wait for the blessed hope and the manifestation of the glory of our great God and Savior,b Jesus Christ. 14He it is who gave himself for us that he might redeem us from all iniquity and purify for himself a people of his own who are zealous for good deeds.
15Declare these things; exhort and reprove with all authority.c Let no one look down on you.
3Remind them to be subject to rulers and authorities, to be obedient, to be ready for every good work, 2to speak evil of no one, to avoid quarreling, to be gentle, and to show every courtesy to everyone. 3For we ourselves were once foolish, disobedient, led astray, slaves to various passions and pleasures, passing our days in malice and envy, despicable, hating one another. 4But when the goodness and loving kindness of God our Savior appeared, 5he saved us, not because of any works of righteousness that we had done, but according to his mercy, through the waterd of rebirth and renewal by the Holy Spirit. 6This Spirit he poured out on us richly through Jesus Christ our Savior, 7so that, having been justified by his grace, we might become heirs according to the hope of eternal life. 8The saying is sure.
I desire that you insist on these things, so that those who have come to believe in God may be careful to devote themselves to good works; these things are excellent and profitable to everyone. 9But avoid stupid controversies, genealogies, dissensions, and quarrels about the law, for they are unprofitable and worthless. 10After a first and second admonition, have nothing more to do with anyone who causes divisions, 11since you know that such a person is perverted and sinful, being self-condemned.
12When I send Artemas to you, or Tychicus, do your best to come to me at Nicopolis, for I have decided to spend the winter there. 13Make every effort to send Zenas the lawyer and Apollos on their way, and see that they lack nothing. 14And let people learn to devote themselves to good works in order to meet urgent needs, so that they may not be unproductive.
15All who are with me send greetings to you. Greet those who love us in the faith.
Grace be with all of you.a
The longest opening of the Pastoral Epistles, the passage may have been intended to introduce all three letters. 1:Servant, lit., “slave” (Gk “doulos”) of God, a frequent title in Jewish literature (see 2 Sam 3.18; Jer 7.25; Jon 1.9[LXX]; Ps 19.11,13; 27.9; Ezra 5.11; 9.11; and Neh 1.6,11). Apostle, “messenger,” used seventy-nine times in the NT but only once in the LXX (1 Kings 14.6). God’s elect alludes to the election of Israel (see Isa 65.9, which also links election to servanthood), although the LXX does not use the exact phrase; Christ’s followers are “elect” through faith and discipleship (e.g., Mt 22.14; Mk 13.20–27; Titus 1.1; 1 Pet 1.2; 2.9–10). Knowledge of the truth, God’s revelation through Christ; the phrase in the Pastorals is almost formulaic (1 Tim 2.4; 2 Tim 2.25; 3.7). Godliness, living in accordance with truth, an important virtue in Hellenistic Jewish (Philo, Decalogue 119) and Gentile (Epictetus, Encheiridion 31) literature. 2:Eternal life, Dan 12.2, Wis 5.15, and Pss. Sol. 3.12 in reference to the resurrection of the righteous. Never lies, God’s fidelity and honesty are central in the Jewish Scriptures (Num 23.19; 1 Sam 15.29). Before the ages began, the timelessness before creation (see 2 Tim 1.9); for Philo, time begins with creation (On the Creation 26) and in some DSS God’s plan is established before creation (e.g., 1QS 3.15). 4:The faith, communal confession of God’s revelation through the Christ; the definite article makes it a technical term, unlike Paul’s use of “faith” (Gk “pistis”), without the article, which connotes relationship rather than doctrine (see Rom 3.22). Savior (Gk “soteros”), used only once in the undisputed Pauline corpus (Phil 3.20) but ten times in the Pastorals. Both God and human rescuers are called “savior,” but the word is not associated with the title “Messiah” in Jewish literature, except in the NT, where God’s saving actions are made manifest through Jesus (whose name means “God saves”). Salvation includes present-oriented righteous living and future-oriented eternal life, in contrast to Paul who understands salvation only as a future event for which one must wait.