The Letter to the Hebrews
Hebrews stands out from other New Testament literature in three ways: it is the only document that contains a sustained argument on the nature of Christ; its origin is unknown and thus its connections to other early Christian writings are unclear; and it is often perceived as among the New Testament’s most anti-Jewish texts.
Authorship and Literary History
Although premodern commentators assumed that Paul wrote Hebrews, virtually all scholars today agree that Paul is not its author. Unlike some epistles that pseudonymously claim Paul’s name (e.g., 1 and 2 Timothy and Titus), Hebrews does not claim Pauline authorship; rather it is anonymous. At some point, Hebrews began circulating with Paul’s letters, as attested by a third- century manuscript of the letters known as Chester Beatty Biblical Papyrus II, where it follows Romans. Here is where we first find the title “To the Hebrews.” (When multiple texts were bound as a single collection, scribes added titles to mark the start of each one. In the case of Paul’s letters, the titles were meant to indicate the letter’s addressees.)
The reasons Hebrews was attributed to Paul are unclear, and Pauline authorship was widely debated among ancient Christians. For centuries many in the Western church rejected its canonicity because of its dubious authorship. Eventually, influential church fathers like Augustine affirmed Hebrews as Pauline, even as he acknowledged its divergent style and speculated that perhaps Paul had not “penned” the text directly, as he had the other letters. There are resonances between Hebrews and Paul’s genuine writings, especially Romans (e.g., references to “dead works” [6.1; 9.14]). The language, style, and purpose of Hebrews are nevertheless markedly different than the authentic Pauline epistles. For example, the author writes in an elevated Greek style using long complex sentences, and he constructs a single sustained argument that follows a deliberate, logical structure. By contrast, short, simple sentences are characteristic of Paul’s style, and his discourse is punctuated by abrupt rhetorical questions, which creates a vivid sense that Paul is spontaneously dialoguing with others about various issues.
Although Hebrews has traditionally been considered a letter, 13.22 identifies the work as a “word of exhortation,” which some interpreters take to mean a sermon. Others argue that Hebrews was composed as a written treatise on the nature, importance, and role of Jesus in God’s cosmic plan from the start. A minority of scholars suggest that Hebrews was composed as a synagogue sermon for the ninth of Av (the day on which the destruction of the two Jerusalem Temples is recalled), since later sources note that the Torah and Haftarah readings for that holy day are Ex 20 and Jer 31, texts that figure prominently in Hebrews.
We cannot with confidence determine whether Hebrews was written before or after the destruction of the Jerusalem Temple in 70 ce. Arguments for a pre-70 date observe that Hebrews nowhere mentions the destruction. Indeed, Hebrews makes no comment about the Temple; rather, it focuses on the wilderness Tabernacle (Ex 25.1–31.11; 36.1–40.38). Because the text claims that the Jewish sacrificial system is replaced by the one-time sacrifice of Jesus, an appeal to the Temple’s destruction would have greatly bolstered its central argument that Levitical sacrifices had become obsolete (chs 8–10). Conversely, the text may be assuming the reality of the Temple’s destruction and is responding to the catastrophe. Indeed, other Jewish texts produced after the destruction of the Temple sometimes read as if the Temple is still standing, as exemplified in the last two orders of the Mishnah, where we find elaborate instructions about appropriate ways to conduct the Temple sacrifices.
The intended audience of the document is unknown. Many commentators, both ancient and modern, believe the text is addressed to Jewish followers of Jesus, although the designation Ioudaioi, “Jews,” never appears in the text (the term Hebraioi, “Hebrews,” appears only in its belatedly appended title). Those who hold this view see these Jewish addressees as being tempted to “backslide” into non-messianic Judaism, for fear of persecution as Christians. While threats of persecution appear in the text (e.g., 10.32–34) it does not follow that retreating to a more traditional form of Jewish practice would alleviate such persecution—from the time of the Jewish revolt and sometime thereafter, Roman-Jewish relations were often strained, and it seems unlikely that Roman authorities would care what form of Judaism Jews practiced, namely, whether particular Jewish groups did or did not believe in Jesus as Messiah. Beyond speculations about the historical context, the text argues on the basis of Israel’s Scripture and not Judaism’s relation to the Temple in terms of first-century ce practices, and therefore its intended audience could comprise any followers of Jesus, Jewish in origin or Gentile, who have familiarity with the Septuagint.
Because Hebrews has a Platonic philosophical orientation resembling that of Philo of Alexandria—for example, both Hebrews and Philo conceptualize the Jerusalem Temple as the physical form of an immaterial heavenly Temple (8.1–5; 9.23–24; Philo, Heir 75; 112–13; Prelim. Studies 116–17; see “Philo,” p. 714)—an Alexandrian setting is possible. Although this implies basic familiarity with Greek philosophy, it need not imply that the author of Hebrews was familiar with Philo’s writings. Because Heb 13.24 extends greetings to “those from Italy” and because the earliest mention of Hebrews comes from the late first-century Christian text, 1 Clement, written from Rome, a Roman setting is favored by many modern scholars. Whatever the setting of the author or the audience, Hebrews does not appear to be addressing local circumstances as do the genuine Pauline letters.
Structure and Contents
Displaying the New Testament’s most sophisticated Greek, Hebrews is marked by rhythmic cadences, alliteration, and other poetic devices. For example, although hard to detect in English, its first four verses form a poetic chain of syllabically balanced clauses, and the opening line resounds with alliteration (the opening sentence, for example, begins polymeroœs kai polytropoœs palai … and so stresses the “p” sound) and assonance (e.g., 3.12 connects apistia [“lack of faith”] and aposteœnai [“abandonment”]. Creating an alliterative rhythm, the phrase “by faith” introduces each figure named in the list of biblical heroes in ch 11.
A good portion of Hebrews is taken up with explication of the Greek translation of the Bible (the Septuagint), with several passages expounding a single word or phrase at great length (see, e.g., Ps 95.11 in ch 4 or Ps 110.1 in ch 7). The purpose of such citations is almost always to demonstrate the superiority of Christ to anything or anyone in Israel’s past. Hebrews offers a distinct and elevated Christology (see “Christology,” p. 754). As the Son of God, Jesus is superior to all other beings, including angels—he is uncreated, immortal, and permanent. He is also superior to all biblical heroes, including Moses and Abraham, as well as institutions like the Levitical priesthood. As both perfect sacrifice and heavenly priest who intercedes for humans, Jesus supersedes the Jewish sacrificial system, rendering it obsolete. Indeed, the text states that sacrifices performed by the Levitical priests are ineffective precisely because they had to be repeated (10.1–5), while Jesus’ sacrifice was only offered once. For additional details, see “Sacrifice and the Temple,” p. 658. Yet, for Hebrews, Jesus is also fully human: although sinless (4.15), he died to atone for the sins of others.
Guide to Reading
Because Hebrews argues for Jesus’ superiority over all else and the obsolescence of the covenant God made with Moses at Mount Sinai, it expresses what scholars call supersessionist theology. Supersessionism is the idea that Christ’s entry into human history replaces all that has come before, including God’s unique covenantal bond with Israel. The same idea is sometimes referred to as rejection/replacement theology (see “The NT and Jewish - Christian Relations,” p. 763).
Although postbiblical Judaism differed in many ways from ancient Israelite religion as reflected in the Tanakh, and although one could argue that rabbinic Halakhah, informed as it is by the Oral Torah, “replaced” the Temple cult, the Pharisees and later the rabbis never speak of the Judaism they created as superior to the covenant(s) God made with Israel. On the contrary, the Torah given to Moses remains esteemed above all other sources of authority, and rabbinic writings, unlike the New Testament, never became part of the biblical canon. While rabbinic Jews ancient and modern may in practice adhere more closely to prescriptions in the Mishnah than the Torah, they do not regard the Mishnah as a divine document on par with the Torah. Jews do not read from the entire Mishnah as part of worship, and handling the Mishnah does not involve the same elaborate reverential prescriptions the Torah requires. The language of continuity between the biblical promises/covenants/laws and rabbinic Halakhah dominates postbiblical Jewish texts. This attitude can be easily seen in the opening lines of Mishnah Avot, which states that Moses received the Torah from Sinai and then it passed through a chain of succession from Joshua, the elders, the prophets and the men of the Great Synagogue to the rabbis of the Mishnah. By contrast, mature Christianity came to see the incarnation of Christ as a rupture with the past insofar as Christ was the culmination of God’s relationship with humanity in general and Israel in particular. Ultimately Christianity, as the religion that developed around worship of Christ, understood itself as having replaced not just the covenant between Israel and God, but Judaism as a religion. Hebrews is the foundation of this idea that Christianity has “replaced” Judaism.
Supersessionist theology inscribes Judaism as an obsolete, illegitimate religion, and in the New Testament this idea is articulated no more plainly than in Hebrews. Drawing on Jeremiah’s reference (31.31) to a “new covenant” (Heb brit ḥadashah; Gk diathēkē kainē), the author of Hebrews calls Mosaic Law “only a shadow of the good things to come” (10.1) and insists that “in speaking of ‘a new covenant,’ he has made the first one obsolete. And what is obsolete and growing old will soon disappear” (8.13). Such language helped foster the view that Judaism was an inferior religion, at best a precursor to Christ.
In recent years, some scholars have made efforts to address the problem of anti-Judaism in Hebrews and have attempted to offer an alternative lens for reading Hebrews’s disparaging comments by means of attending to their historical context. For example, if Hebrews is written after the destruction of the Temple, the language of supersessionism can be viewed not as a prescribed attack on Jewish ritual practice but rather as at attempt to cope with the desperate reality that, in fact, worshipping God by means of the Temple cult is no longer an option. Framing Hebrews this way analogizes it to the Mishnah, where the absence of a Temple necessitates translating the complex of Temple cult practices into other forms. There remains, however, a difference. The Mishnah never disparages either Israel’s past ritual practice or the institutions that sustained those practices, like the Temple and the priesthood. Part of the agenda of the Mishnah may have been to provide guidance about the observance of Torah in the absence of a Temple, but it does not do so by lamenting that the past practice was inadequate or misguided the way Hebrews does.
Pamela Eisenbaum
1Long ago God spoke to our ancestors in many and various ways by the prophets, 2but in these last days he has spoken to us by a Son,a whom he appointed heir of all things, through whom he also created the worlds. 3He is the reflection of God’s glory and the exact imprint of God’s very being, and he sustainsb all things by his powerful word. When he had made purification for sins, he sat down at the right hand of the Majesty on high, 4having become as much superior to angels as the name he has inherited is more excellent than theirs.
5For to which of the angels did God ever say,
“You are my Son;
today I have begotten you”?
Or again,
“I will be his Father,
and he will be my Son”?
6And again, when he brings the firstborn into the world, he says,
“Let all God’s angels worship him.”
7Of the angels he says,
“He makes his angels winds,
and his servants flames of fire.”
8But of the Son he says,
9You have loved righteousness and hated wickedness;
therefore God, your God, has anointed you
with the oil of gladness beyond your companions.”
Perfection through Suffering
Pervasive in Hebrews, the language of perfection refers to more advanced teachings (6.1), the condition of those who follow Jesus (10.1,14; 11.40; 12.23), what the Law lacks but what Jesus achieves (7.11,19; 9.9), and what Jesus achieves for himself through his suffering (2.10; 5.9). The term itself, “teleios,” connotes maturity, fulfillment, moral perfection, wholeness, and holiness. In Israelite and Jewish cultic contexts, the Hebrew equivalent for “perfection” (tammim) refers to the unblemished state of sacrificial animals and the condition of the priest who makes the sacrifice (see e.g., Lev 21.16–21; 22.20–25). Many exhortations to be perfect before God appear in the Tanakh (Gen 20.5; Deut 18.13; Judg 9.16,19). Philo, like the author of Hebrews, favors perfection terminology, and uses it to name the goal of the virtuous individual (Leg. all. 1.94; 3.74; Names 24) as well as the state of the person who achieves a vision of the divine (Leg. all. 3.74). Finally, according to Hebrews, Jesus is perfected through his suffering. That is not to say that Jesus starts out as imperfect. In Hebrews, Jesus has divine origins, he is neither lacking anything nor in need of correction (see 7.26). Rather, in Greek perfection always connotes a developmental process—to move toward perfection is to move toward completion or accomplishment of a goal. The language of “perfection through suffering” in reference to Jesus has in view the claim that Jesus has completed his divine mission to effect permanent expiation and thus enable emergence of the world to come (Heb olam haba, see e.g., m. Peʾah 1.1; m. B. Metz. 2.11). This peripheral idea of suffering as divine discipline in the Tanakh became mainstream in Hellenistic Judaism. In Wis 4.13, the righteous man who dies before reaching old age is said to have been “perfected,” even though his life was brief; in 4 Macc 7.15, Eleazer’s martyrdom is said to have rendered him “perfect.” In the latter case, the language of perfection describes a pious man’s suffering to death. Rabbinic literature (perhaps under the influence of the Hadrianic persecutions of 132–135 ce) also develops the idea of redemptive suffering, where it is called yisurin shel ahavah, “chastisements of love”; Mek. “Bakhodesh” 10; b. Ber. 5a; b. Sanh. 101a; cf. Heb 5.8.
10And,
“In the beginning, Lord, you founded the earth,
and the heavens are the work of your hands;
11they will perish, but you remain;
they will all wear out like clothing;
12like a cloak you will roll them up,
13But to which of the angels has he ever said,
“Sit at my right hand
until I make your enemies a footstool for your feet”?
14Are not all angelsb spirits in the divine service, sent to serve for the sake of those who are to inherit salvation?
2Therefore we must pay greater attention to what we have heard, so that we do not drift away from it. 2For if the message declared through angels was valid, and every transgression or disobedience received a just penalty, 3how can we escape if we neglect so great a salvation? It was declared at first through the Lord, and it was attested to us by those who heard him, 4while God added his testimony by signs and wonders and various miracles, and by gifts of the Holy Spirit, distributed according to his will.
5Now Goda did not subject the coming world, about which we are speaking, to angels. 6But someone has testified somewhere,
Now in subjecting all things to them, Goda left nothing outside their control. As it is, we do not yet see everything in subjection to them, 9but we do see Jesus, who for a little while was made lowerf than the angels, now crowned with glory and honor because of the suffering of death, so that by the grace of Godg he might taste death for everyone.
10It was fitting that God,a for whom and through whom all things exist, in bringing many children to glory, should make the pioneer of their salvation perfect through sufferings. 11For the one who sanctifies and those who are sanctified all have one Father.b For this reason Jesusa is not ashamed to call them brothers and sisters,c 12saying,
“I will proclaim your name to my brothers and sisters,c
in the midst of the congregation I will praise you.”
13And again,
“I will put my trust in him.”
And again,
“Here am I and the children whom God has given me.”
14Since, therefore, the children share flesh and blood, he himself likewise shared the same things, so that through death he might destroy the one who has the power of death, that is, the devil, 15and free those who all their lives were held in slavery by the fear of death. 16For it is clear that he did not come to help angels, but the descendants of Abraham. 17Therefore he had to become like his brothers and sistersc in every respect, so that he might be a merciful and faithful high priest in the service of God, to make a sacrifice of atonement for the sins of the people. 18Because he himself was tested by what he suffered, he is able to help those who are being tested.
3Therefore, brothers and sisters,a holy partners in a heavenly calling, consider that Jesus, the apostle and high priest of our confession, 2was faithful to the one who appointed him, just as Moses also “was faithful in allb God’sc house.” 3Yet Jesusd is worthy of more glory than Moses, just as the builder of a house has more honor than the house itself. 4(For every house is built by someone, but the builder of all things is God.) 5Now Moses was faithful in all God’sc house as a servant, to testify to the things that would be spoken later. 6Christ, however, was faithful over God’sc house as a son, and we are his house if we hold firme the confidence and the pride that belong to hope.
7Therefore, as the Holy Spirit says,
“Today, if you hear his voice,
8do not harden your hearts as in the rebellion,
as on the day of testing in the wilderness,
9where your ancestors put me to the test,
though they had seen my works 10for forty years.
Therefore I was angry with that generation,
and I said, ‘They always go astray in their hearts,
and they have not known my ways.’
11As in my anger I swore,
‘They will not enter my rest.’”
12Take care, brothers and sisters,a that none of you may have an evil, unbelieving heart that turns away from the living God. 13But exhort one another every day, as long as it is called “today,” so that none of you may be hardened by the deceitfulness of sin. 14For we have become partners of Christ, if only we hold our first confidence firm to the end. 15As it is said,
“Today, if you hear his voice,
do not harden your hearts as in the rebellion.”
16Now who were they who heard and yet were rebellious? Was it not all those who left Egypt under the leadership of Moses? 17But with whom was he angry forty years? Was it not those who sinned, whose bodies fell in the wilderness? 18And to whom did he swear that they would not enter his rest, if not to those who were disobedient? 19So we see that they were unable to enter because of unbelief.
4Therefore, while the promise of entering his rest is still open, let us take care that none of you should seem to have failed to reach it. 2For indeed the good news came to us just as to them; but the message they heard did not benefit them, because they were not united by faith with those who listened.a 3For we who have believed enter that rest, just as Godb has said,
“As in my anger I swore,
‘They shall not enter my rest,’”
though his works were finished at the foundation of the world. 4For in one place it speaks about the seventh day as follows, “And God rested on the seventh day from all his works.” 5And again in this place it says, “They shall not enter my rest.” 6Since therefore it remains open for some to enter it, and those who formerly received the good news failed to enter because of disobedience, 7again he sets a certain day—“today”—saying through David much later, in the words already quoted,
“Today, if you hear his voice,
do not harden your hearts.”
8For if Joshua had given them rest, Godb would not speak later about another day. 9So then, a sabbath rest still remains for the people of God; 10for those who enter God’s rest also cease from their labors as God did from his. 11Let us therefore make every effort to enter that rest, so that no one may fall through such disobedience as theirs.
12Indeed, the word of God is living and active, sharper than any two-edged sword, piercing until it divides soul from spirit, joints from marrow; it is able to judge the thoughts and intentions of the heart. 13And before him no creature is hidden, but all are naked and laid bare to the eyes of the one to whom we must render an account.
14Since, then, we have a great high priest who has passed through the heavens, Jesus, the Son of God, let us hold fast to our confession. 15For we do not have a high priest who is unable to sympathize with our weaknesses, but we have one who in every respect has been testeda as we are, yet without sin. 16Let us therefore approach the throne of grace with boldness, so that we may receive mercy and find grace to help in time of need.
5Every high priest chosen from among mortals is put in charge of things pertaining to God on their behalf, to offer gifts and sacrifices for sins. 2He is able to deal gently with the ignorant and wayward, since he himself is subject to weakness; 3and because of this he must offer sacrifice for his own sins as well as for those of the people. 4And one does not presume to take this honor, but takes it only when called by God, just as Aaron was.
The High Priest in Jewish Tradition
Understanding of the high priest in Hebrews is predicated on the high priest’s distinctive role in Jewish tradition. Ex 29.1–35 and Lev 8–9 recount the establishment of the priesthood, where Moses ordains Aaron as the first high priest, the one charged with entering the Holy of Holies on the Day of Atonement. The title “high priest,” Heb Kohen gadol, Gk archiereus, does not appear in Exodus or Leviticus, but it becomes common later (Num 35; 2 Kings 12.9; Jdt 4.14; 2 Macc 3.32). All high priests were to be descendants of Aaron, although later sources indicate that the high priestly line passed to Zadok (2 Sam 8.17; 1 Kings 2.27,35), who may not have been a descendant of Aaron, though tradition eventually depicted him as so (1 Chr 5.34). During the monarchy, the high priest’s status was secondary to that of the king, and his authority was limited to the religious sphere; most importantly, he attended to the cultic work of the Temple (Heb avodah). Beginning in the Persian period and more so during the Hellenistic period, the authority of the high priest extended to the political arena. The office of high priest and that of the sovereign effectively became one and the same, once the Maccabees consolidated their power into what historians call the Hasmonean dynasty. Seleucid kings had assumed the right to appoint high priests (1 Macc 10.15–21), but when Simon Maccabee rose to prominence through his military and diplomatic achievements, he was formally installed as governor, military commander, and high priest, having been both appointed by the Seleucid king Demetrius and elected by the people (1 Macc 14.41). Although a general sense remained that those who serve as Temple priests should possess priestly lineage, in practice hereditary credentials played almost no role in choosing a high priest, and the procedures for the high priest’s succession outlined in the Torah no longer pertained. For example, the high priest no longer served for life; he could be installed or removed according to political whim, and the turnover rate was high. Indeed, Herod the Great appointed six high priests.
Given the corrupt appointment procedure during the Hellenistic period, speculation developed about heavenly and messianic priests. A few texts from Qumran speak of two messiahs, one kingly and one priestly (1QS 9.11: “the anointed one of Aaron”; see also “Melchizedek,” p. 471). Despite the political and religious importance of the high priest during the Second Temple period, there is no evidence that Hebrews depends on any specific extra-biblical sources. The destruction of the Temple in 70 ce deprived priests of their locus of power, but in some post-70 synagogue communities, priests had leadership roles. Certain liturgical functions, such as being called up first to the Torah for the blessings prior to and after the reading, are reserved in later Jewish tradition exclusively for those of priestly lineage (priestly and Levitical). Thus, memory of priestly status, determined on the paternal line, was passed down within families.
5So also Christ did not glorify himself in becoming a high priest, but was appointed by the one who said to him,
“You are my Son,
today I have begotten you”;
Melchizedek
Although Melchizedek is mentioned twice and only briefly in the Tanakh (Gen 14.18–20 and Ps 110.4), he received substantial attention from later commentators who recognized his special status as a priest-king (Philo, Migr. 235; Leg. all. 3.79–82; Josephus, Ant. 1.177–82). Among the Dead Sea Scrolls, an entire work is devoted to him (11QMelch); there he becomes a superhuman figure who executes divine judgment. The text does not describe him as a priest, but he is described as having priestly functions (11QMelch 2.6). In rabbinic tradition, Melchizedek bestows the priesthood on Abraham, who then becomes a “priest forever” (b. Ned. 32b; Lev. Rab. 25.6). Some rabbinic texts identify Melchizedek as descended from Noah’s son Shem, which may be a polemic against Hebrews’s claim that Melchizedek lacks human genealogy (b. Ned. 32b; Num. Rab. 4.8; Pirqe R. El. 27.3). 2 En. 71–72 describes Melchizedek’s miraculous birth to Nir, the wife of Noah’s brother. Melchizedek is there chosen to be saved from the flood so that he might continue the priestly lineage inaugurated by Seth (see 71.29,32).
6as he says also in another place,
“You are a priest forever,
according to the order of Melchizedek.”
7In the days of his flesh, Jesusa offered up prayers and supplications, with loud cries and tears, to the one who was able to save him from death, and he was heard because of his reverent submission. 8Although he was a Son, he learned obedience through what he suffered; 9and having been made perfect, he became the source of eternal salvation for all who obey him, 10having been designated by God a high priest according to the order of Melchizedek.
11About thisb we have much to say that is hard to explain, since you have become dull in understanding. 12For though by this time you ought to be teachers, you need someone to teach you again the basic elements of the oracles of God. You need milk, not solid food; 13for everyone who lives on milk, being still an infant, is unskilled in the word of righteousness. 14But solid food is for the mature, for those whose faculties have been trained by practice to distinguish good from evil.
6Therefore let us go on toward perfection,c leaving behind the basic teaching about Christ, and not laying again the foundation: repentance from dead works and faith toward God, 2instruction about baptisms, laying on of hands, resurrection of the dead, and eternal judgment. 3And we will dod this, if God permits. 4For it is impossible to restore again to repentance those who have once been enlightened, and have tasted the heavenly gift, and have shared in the Holy Spirit, 5and have tasted the goodness of the word of God and the powers of the age to come, 6and then have fallen away, since on their own they are crucifying again the Son of God and are holding him up to contempt. 7Ground that drinks up the rain falling on it repeatedly, and that produces a crop useful to those for whom it is cultivated, receives a blessing from God. 8But if it produces thorns and thistles, it is worthless and on the verge of being cursed; its end is to be burned over.
9Even though we speak in this way, beloved, we are confident of better things in your case, things that belong to salvation. 10For God is not unjust; he will not overlook your work and the love that you showed for his sakea in serving the saints, as you still do. 11And we want each one of you to show the same diligence so as to realize the full assurance of hope to the very end, 12so that you may not become sluggish, but imitators of those who through faith and patience inherit the promises.
13When God made a promise to Abraham, because he had no one greater by whom to swear, he swore by himself, 14saying, “I will surely bless you and multiply you.” 15And thus Abraham,b having patiently endured, obtained the promise. 16Human beings, of course, swear by someone greater than themselves, and an oath given as confirmation puts an end to all dispute. 17In the same way, when God desired to show even more clearly to the heirs of the promise the unchangeable character of his purpose, he guaranteed it by an oath, 18so that through two unchangeable things, in which it is impossible that God would prove false, we who have taken refuge might be strongly encouraged to seize the hope set before us. 19We have this hope, a sure and steadfast anchor of the soul, a hope that enters the inner shrine behind the curtain, 20where Jesus, a forerunner on our behalf, has entered, having become a high priest forever according to the order of Melchizedek.
7This “King Melchizedek of Salem, priest of the Most High God, met Abraham as he was returning from defeating the kings and blessed him”; 2and to him Abraham apportioned “one-tenth of everything.” His name, in the first place, means “king of righteousness”; next he is also king of Salem, that is, “king of peace.” 3Without father, without mother, without genealogy, having neither beginning of days nor end of life, but resembling the Son of God, he remains a priest forever.
4See how great he is! Evena Abraham the patriarch gave him a tenth of the spoils. 5And those descendants of Levi who receive the priestly office have a commandment in the law to collect tithesb from the people, that is, from their kindred,c though these also are descended from Abraham. 6But this man, who does not belong to their ancestry, collected tithesb from Abraham and blessed him who had received the promises. 7It is beyond dispute that the inferior is blessed by the superior. 8In the one case, tithes are received by those who are mortal; in the other, by one of whom it is testified that he lives. 9One might even say that Levi himself, who receives tithes, paid tithes through Abraham, 10for he was still in the loins of his ancestor when Melchizedek met him.
11Now if perfection had been attainable through the levitical priesthood—for the people received the law under this priesthood—what further need would there have been to speak of another priest arising according to the order of Melchizedek, rather than one according to the order of Aaron? 12For when there is a change in the priesthood, there is necessarily a change in the law as well. 13Now the one of whom these things are spoken belonged to another tribe, from which no one has ever served at the altar. 14For it is evident that our Lord was descended from Judah, and in connection with that tribe Moses said nothing about priests.
15It is even more obvious when another priest arises, resembling Melchizedek, 16one who has become a priest, not through a legal requirement concerning physical descent, but through the power of an indestructible life. 17For it is attested of him,
“You are a priest forever,
according to the order of Melchizedek.”
18There is, on the one hand, the abrogation of an earlier commandment because it was weak and ineffectual 19(for the law made nothing perfect); there is, on the other hand, the introduction of a better hope, through which we approach God.
20This was confirmed with an oath; for others who became priests took their office without an oath, 21but this one became a priest with an oath, because of the one who said to him,
“The Lord has sworn
and will not change his mind,
‘You are a priest forever’”—
22accordingly Jesus has also become the guarantee of a better covenant.
23Furthermore, the former priests were many in number, because they were prevented by death from continuing in office; 24but he holds his priesthood permanently, because he continues forever. 25Consequently he is able for all time to savea those who approach God through him, since he always lives to make intercession for them.
26For it was fitting that we should have such a high priest, holy, blameless, undefiled, separated from sinners, and exalted above the heavens. 27Unlike the othera high priests, he has no need to offer sacrifices day after day, first for his own sins, and then for those of the people; this he did once for all when he offered himself. 28For the law appoints as high priests those who are subject to weakness, but the word of the oath, which came later than the law, appoints a Son who has been made perfect forever.
8Now the main point in what we are saying is this: we have such a high priest, one who is seated at the right hand of the throne of the Majesty in the heavens, 2a minister in the sanctuary and the true tentb that the Lord, and not any mortal, has set up. 3For every high priest is appointed to offer gifts and sacrifices; hence it is necessary for this priest also to have something to offer. 4Now if he were on earth, he would not be a priest at all, since there are priests who offer gifts according to the law. 5They offer worship in a sanctuary that is a sketch and shadow of the heavenly one; for Moses, when he was about to erect the tent,b was warned, “See that you make everything according to the pattern that was shown you on the mountain.” 6But Jesusc has now obtained a more excellent ministry, and to that degree he is the mediator of a better covenant, which has been enacted through better promises. 7For if that first covenant had been faultless, there would have been no need to look for a second one.
8Godd finds fault with them when he says:
“The days are surely coming, says the Lord,
when I will establish a new covenant with the house of Israel
and with the house of Judah;
9not like the covenant that I made with their ancestors,
on the day when I took them by the hand to lead them out of the land of Egypt;
for they did not continue in my covenant,
and so I had no concern for them, says the Lord.
10This is the covenant that I will make with the house of Israel
after those days, says the Lord:
I will put my laws in their minds,
and write them on their hearts,
and I will be their God,
and they shall be my people.
11And they shall not teach one another
or say to each other, ‘Know the Lord,’
for they shall all know me,
from the least of them to the greatest.
12For I will be merciful toward their iniquities,
and I will remember their sins no more.”
13In speaking of “a new covenant,” he has made the first one obsolete. And what is obsolete and growing old will soon disappear.
9Now even the first covenant had regulations for worship and an earthly sanctuary. 2For a tenta was constructed, the first one, in which were the lampstand, the table, and the bread of the Presence;b this is called the Holy Place. 3Behind the second curtain was a tenta called the Holy of Holies. 4In it stood the golden altar of incense and the ark of the covenant overlaid on all sides with gold, in which there were a golden urn holding the manna, and Aaron’s rod that budded, and the tablets of the covenant; 5above it were the cherubim of glory overshadowing the mercy seat.c Of these things we cannot speak now in detail.
6Such preparations having been made, the priests go continually into the first tenta to carry out their ritual duties; 7but only the high priest goes into the second, and he but once a year, and not without taking the blood that he offers for himself and for the sins committed unintentionally by the people. 8By this the Holy Spirit indicates that the way into the sanctuary has not yet been disclosed as long as the first tenta is still standing. 9This is a symbolb of the present time, during which gifts and sacrifices are offered that cannot perfect the conscience of the worshiper, 10but deal only with food and drink and various baptisms, regulations for the body imposed until the time comes to set things right.
11But when Christ came as a high priest of the good things that have come,c then through the greater and perfectd tenta (not made with hands, that is, not of this creation), 12he entered once for all into the Holy Place, not with the blood of goats and calves, but with his own blood, thus obtaining eternal redemption. 13For if the blood of goats and bulls, with the sprinkling of the ashes of a heifer, sanctifies those who have been defiled so that their flesh is purified, 14how much more will the blood of Christ, who through the eternal Spirite offered himself without blemish to God, purify ourf conscience from dead works to worship the living God!
15For this reason he is the mediator of a new covenant, so that those who are called may receive the promised eternal inheritance, because a death has occurred that redeems them from the transgressions under the first covenant.a 16Where a willa is involved, the death of the one who made it must be established. 17For a willa takes effect only at death, since it is not in force as long as the one who made it is alive. 18Hence not even the first covenant was inaugurated without blood. 19For when every commandment had been told to all the people by Moses in accordance with the law, he took the blood of calves and goats,b with water and scarlet wool and hyssop, and sprinkled both the scroll itself and all the people, 20saying, “This is the blood of the covenant that God has ordained for you.” 21And in the same way he sprinkled with the blood both the tentc and all the vessels used in worship. 22Indeed, under the law almost everything is purified with blood, and without the shedding of blood there is no forgiveness of sins.
23Thus it was necessary for the sketches of the heavenly things to be purified with these rites, but the heavenly things themselves need better sacrifices than these. 24For Christ did not enter a sanctuary made by human hands, a mere copy of the true one, but he entered into heaven itself, now to appear in the presence of God on our behalf. 25Nor was it to offer himself again and again, as the high priest enters the Holy Place year after year with blood that is not his own; 26for then he would have had to suffer again and again since the foundation of the world. But as it is, he has appeared once for all at the end of the age to remove sin by the sacrifice of himself. 27And just as it is appointed for mortals to die once, and after that the judgment, 28so Christ, having been offered once to bear the sins of many, will appear a second time, not to deal with sin, but to save those who are eagerly waiting for him.
10Since the law has only a shadow of the good things to come and not the true form of these realities, ita can never, by the same sacrifices that are continually offered year after year, make perfect those who approach. 2Otherwise, would they not have ceased being offered, since the worshipers, cleansed once for all, would no longer have any consciousness of sin? 3But in these sacrifices there is a reminder of sin year after year. 4For it is impossible for the blood of bulls and goats to take away sins. 5Consequently, when Christb came into the world, he said,
8When he said above, “You have neither desired nor taken pleasure in sacrifices and offerings and burnt offerings and sin offerings” (these are offered according to the law), 9then he added, “See, I have come to do your will.” He abolishes the first in order to establish the second. 10And it is by God’s willd that we have been sanctified through the offering of the body of Jesus Christ once for all.
11And every priest stands day after day at his service, offering again and again the same sacrifices that can never take away sins. 12But when Christa had offered for all time a single sacrifice for sins, “he sat down at the right hand of God,” 13and since then has been waiting “until his enemies would be made a footstool for his feet.” 14For by a single offering he has perfected for all time those who are sanctified. 15And the Holy Spirit also testifies to us, for after saying,
18Where there is forgiveness of these, there is no longer any offering for sin.
19Therefore, my friends,c since we have confidence to enter the sanctuary by the blood of Jesus, 20by the new and living way that he opened for us through the curtain (that is, through his flesh), 21and since we have a great priest over the house of God, 22let us approach with a true heart in full assurance of faith, with our hearts sprinkled clean from an evil conscience and our bodies washed with pure water. 23Let us hold fast to the confession of our hope without wavering, for he who has promised is faithful. 24And let us consider how to provoke one another to love and good deeds, 25not neglecting to meet together, as is the habit of some, but encouraging one another, and all the more as you see the Day approaching.
26For if we willfully persist in sin after having received the knowledge of the truth, there no longer remains a sacrifice for sins, 27but a fearful prospect of judgment, and a fury of fire that will consume the adversaries. 28Anyone who has violated the law of Moses dies without mercy “on the testimony of two or three witnesses.” 29How much worse punishment do you think will be deserved by those who have spurned the Son of God, profaned the blood of the covenant by which they were sanctified, and outraged the Spirit of grace? 30For we know the one who said, “Vengeance is mine, I will repay.” And again, “The Lord will judge his people.” 31It is a fearful thing to fall into the hands of the living God.
Heroes of the Faith
The list of heroes resembles lists of biblical heroes in Jewish literature (Sir 44.1–49.16; Wis 10.1–21; 1 Macc 1.51–60; 4 Macc 18.11–19; 4 Ezra [2 Esd] 7.105–111), but it reflects some unusual choices. Except for a passing mention of David at the end (Heb 11.32), the author includes no priests or kings. Certain expected highlights do not appear, and unexpected ones do. For example, no mention is made of God’s circumcision covenant with Abraham from Gen 17, nor is Sinai mentioned despite the attention given to Moses. Instead of focusing on the heroes’ leadership roles, Hebrews emphasizes the characters as largely set apart from the people. While rabbinic literature also uses lists, it neither lists biblical heroes nor presents “gospels” in the sense of biographies of such heroes. Rather, it lists, e.g., “the ten tests of Abraham” or “three who did not suffer death …” Generally speaking, the heroes in Hebrews have three characteristics: (1) Near-death experience: Noah would have perished in the flood; Moses would have died as an infant; (2) Ability to see the future and act faithfully in light of that knowledge: Noah receives an oracle about the flood and builds the ark; Abraham receives a promise about Isaac, and very late in his life that promise is realized; (3) Alienation: The heroes are portrayed as alienated from the people of their generation. Abraham lived in the land “as in a foreign land,” and Moses was not really one of his people, because he was raised by Pharaoh’s daughter. The heroes are not distinguished by their comrades, as those depicted in Sir 44–50; they are distinguished from them. The list functions as a kind of genealogy for the early Christ-believing community; it creates a lineage independent from the people of Israel because the heroes are portrayed as outsiders and includes non-Israelites. Hebrews 11 set the stage for the way in which Christians would eventually come to understand the Old Testament as a precursor to the New Testament.
32But recall those earlier days when, after you had been enlightened, you endured a hard struggle with sufferings, 33sometimes being publicly exposed to abuse and persecution, and sometimes being partners with those so treated. 34For you had compassion for those who were in prison, and you cheerfully accepted the plundering of your possessions, knowing that you yourselves possessed something better and more lasting. 35Do not, therefore, abandon that confidence of yours; it brings a great reward. 36For you need endurance, so that when you have done the will of God, you may receive what was promised. 37For yet
“in a very little while,
the one who is coming will come and will not delay;
38but my righteous one will live by faith.
My soul takes no pleasure in anyone who shrinks back.”
39But we are not among those who shrink back and so are lost, but among those who have faith and so are saved.
11Now faith is the assurance of things hoped for, the conviction of things not seen. 2Indeed, by faitha our ancestors received approval. 3By faith we understand that the worlds were prepared by the word of God, so that what is seen was made from things that are not visible.a
4By faith Abel offered to God a more acceptableb sacrifice than Cain’s. Through this he received approval as righteous, God himself giving approval to his gifts; he died, but through his faithc he still speaks. 5By faith Enoch was taken so that he did not experience death; and “he was not found, because God had taken him.” For it was attested before he was taken away that “he had pleased God.” 6And without faith it is impossible to please God, for whoever would approach him must believe that he exists and that he rewards those who seek him. 7By faith Noah, warned by God about events as yet unseen, respected the warning and built an ark to save his household; by this he condemned the world and became an heir to the righteousness that is in accordance with faith.
8By faith Abraham obeyed when he was called to set out for a place that he was to receive as an inheritance; and he set out, not knowing where he was going. 9By faith he stayed for a time in the land he had been promised, as in a foreign land, living in tents, as did Isaac and Jacob, who were heirs with him of the same promise. 10For he looked forward to the city that has foundations, whose architect and builder is God. 11By faith he received power of procreation, even though he was too old—and Sarah herself was barren—because he considered him faithful who had promised.a 12Therefore from one person, and this one as good as dead, descendants were born, “as many as the stars of heaven and as the innumerable grains of sand by the seashore.”
13All of these died in faith without having received the promises, but from a distance they saw and greeted them. They confessed that they were strangers and foreigners on the earth, 14for people who speak in this way make it clear that they are seeking a homeland. 15If they had been thinking of the land that they had left behind, they would have had opportunity to return. 16But as it is, they desire a better country, that is, a heavenly one. Therefore God is not ashamed to be called their God; indeed, he has prepared a city for them.
17By faith Abraham, when put to the test, offered up Isaac. He who had received the promises was ready to offer up his only son, 18of whom he had been told, “It is through Isaac that descendants shall be named for you.” 19He considered the fact that God is able even to raise someone from the dead—and figuratively speaking, he did receive him back. 20By faith Isaac invoked blessings for the future on Jacob and Esau. 21By faith Jacob, when dying, blessed each of the sons of Joseph, “bowing in worship over the top of his staff.” 22By faith Joseph, at the end of his life, made mention of the exodus of the Israelites and gave instructions about his burial.a
23By faith Moses was hidden by his parents for three months after his birth, because they saw that the child was beautiful; and they were not afraid of the king’s edict.b 24By faith Moses, when he was grown up, refused to be called a son of Pharaoh’s daughter, 25choosing rather to share ill-treatment with the people of God than to enjoy the fleeting pleasures of sin. 26He considered abuse suffered for the Christc to be greater wealth than the treasures of Egypt, for he was looking ahead to the reward. 27By faith he left Egypt, unafraid of the king’s anger; for he persevered as thoughd he saw him who is invisible. 28By faith he kept the Passover and the sprinkling of blood, so that the destroyer of the firstborn would not touch the firstborn of Israel.e
29By faith the people passed through the Red Sea as if it were dry land, but when the Egyptians attempted to do so they were drowned. 30By faith the walls of Jericho fell after they had been encircled for seven days. 31By faith Rahab the prostitute did not perish with those who were disobedient,f because she had received the spies in peace.
32And what more should I say? For time would fail me to tell of Gideon, Barak, Samson, Jephthah, of David and Samuel and the prophets— 33who through faith conquered kingdoms, administered justice, obtained promises, shut the mouths of lions, 34quenched raging fire, escaped the edge of the sword, won strength out of weakness, became mighty in war, put foreign armies to flight. 35Women received their dead by resurrection. Others were tortured, refusing to accept release, in order to obtain a better resurrection. 36Others suffered mocking and flogging, and even chains and imprisonment. 37They were stoned to death, they were sawn in two,g they were killed by the sword; they went about in skins of sheep and goats, destitute, persecuted, tormented— 38of whom the world was not worthy. They wandered in deserts and mountains, and in caves and holes in the ground.
39Yet all these, though they were commended for their faith, did not receive what was promised, 40since God had provided something better so that they would not, apart from us, be made perfect.
12Therefore, since we are surrounded by so great a cloud of witnesses, let us also lay aside every weight and the sin that clings so closely,a and let us run with perseverance the race that is set before us, 2looking to Jesus the pioneer and perfecter of our faith, who for the sake of b the joy that was set before him endured the cross, disregarding its shame, and has taken his seat at the right hand of the throne of God.
3Consider him who endured such hostility against himself from sinners,c so that you may not grow weary or lose heart. 4In your struggle against sin you have not yet resisted to the point of shedding your blood. 5And you have forgotten the exhortation that addresses you as children—
“My child, do not regard lightly the discipline of the Lord,
or lose heart when you are punished by him;
6for the Lord disciplines those whom he loves,
and chastises every child whom he accepts.”
7Endure trials for the sake of discipline. God is treating you as children; for what child is there whom a parent does not discipline? 8If you do not have that discipline in which all children share, then you are illegitimate and not his children. 9Moreover, we had human parents to discipline us, and we respected them. Should we not be even more willing to be subject to the Father of spirits and live? 10For they disciplined us for a short time as seemed best to them, but he disciplines us for our good, in order that we may share his holiness. 11Now, discipline always seems painful rather than pleasant at the time, but later it yields the peaceful fruit of righteousness to those who have been trained by it.
12Therefore lift your drooping hands and strengthen your weak knees, 13and make straight paths for your feet, so that what is lame may not be put out of joint, but rather be healed.
14Pursue peace with everyone, and the holiness without which no one will see the Lord. 15See to it that no one fails to obtain the grace of God; that no root of bitterness springs up and causes trouble, and through it many become defiled. 16See to it that no one becomes like Esau, an immoral and godless person, who sold his birthright for a single meal. 17You know that later, when he wanted to inherit the blessing, he was rejected, for he found no chance to repent,a even though he sought the blessingb with tears.
18You have not come to somethingc that can be touched, a blazing fire, and darkness, and gloom, and a tempest, 19and the sound of a trumpet, and a voice whose words made the hearers beg that not another word be spoken to them. 20(For they could not endure the order that was given, “If even an animal touches the mountain, it shall be stoned to death.” 21Indeed, so terrifying was the sight that Moses said, “I tremble with fear.”) 22But you have come to Mount Zion and to the city of the living God, the heavenly Jerusalem, and to innumerable angels in festal gathering, 23and to the assemblyd of the firstborn who are enrolled in heaven, and to God the judge of all, and to the spirits of the righteous made perfect, 24and to Jesus, the mediator of a new covenant, and to the sprinkled blood that speaks a better word than the blood of Abel.
25See that you do not refuse the one who is speaking; for if they did not escape when they refused the one who warned them on earth, how much less will we escape if we reject the one who warns from heaven! 26At that time his voice shook the earth; but now he has promised, “Yet once more I will shake not only the earth but also the heaven.” 27This phrase, “Yet once more,” indicates the removal of what is shaken—that is, created things—so that what cannot be shaken may remain. 28Therefore, since we are receiving a kingdom that cannot be shaken, let us give thanks, by which we offer to God an acceptable worship with reverence and awe; 29for indeed our God is a consuming fire.
13Let mutual love continue. 2Do not neglect to show hospitality to strangers, for by doing that some have entertained angels without knowing it. 3Remember those who are in prison, as though you were in prison with them; those who are being tortured, as though you yourselves were being tortured.a 4Let marriage be held in honor by all, and let the marriage bed be kept undefiled; for God will judge fornicators and adulterers. 5Keep your lives free from the love of money, and be content with what you have; for he has said, “I will never leave you or forsake you.” 6So we can say with confidence,
“The Lord is my helper;
I will not be afraid.
What can anyone do to me?”
7Remember your leaders, those who spoke the word of God to you; consider the outcome of their way of life, and imitate their faith. 8Jesus Christ is the same yesterday and today and forever. 9Do not be carried away by all kinds of strange teachings; for it is well for the heart to be strengthened by grace, not by regulations about food,b which have not benefited those who observe them. 10We have an altar from which those who officiate in the tentc have no right to eat. 11For the bodies of those animals whose blood is brought into the sanctuary by the high priest as a sacrifice for sin are burned outside the camp. 12Therefore Jesus also suffered outside the city gate in order to sanctify the people by his own blood. 13Let us then go to him outside the camp and bear the abuse he endured. 14For here we have no lasting city, but we are looking for the city that is to come. 15Through him, then, let us continually offer a sacrifice of praise to God, that is, the fruit of lips that confess his name. 16Do not neglect to do good and to share what you have, for such sacrifices are pleasing to God.
17Obey your leaders and submit to them, for they are keeping watch over your souls and will give an account. Let them do this with joy and not with sighing—for that would be harmful to you.
18Pray for us; we are sure that we have a clear conscience, desiring to act honorably in all things. 19I urge you all the more to do this, so that I may be restored to you very soon.
20Now may the God of peace, who brought back from the dead our Lord Jesus, the great shepherd of the sheep, by the blood of the eternal covenant, 21make you complete in everything good so that you may do his will, working among usa that which is pleasing in his sight, through Jesus Christ, to whom be the glory forever and ever. Amen.
22I appeal to you, brothers and sisters,b bear with my word of exhortation, for I have written to you briefly. 23I want you to know that our brother Timothy has been set free; and if he comes in time, he will be with me when I see you. 24Greet all your leaders and all the saints. Those from Italy send you greetings. 25Grace be with all of you.c
A poetic presentation of the main theme: the superiority of Christ, called Son to emphasize his unique status. 1–2:Long ago … last days, contrasting periods of divine revelation anticipate the contrast between old and new covenants (8.6–13). Our ancestors, explicit indication that the author and implied audience understand themselves as rooted in the same lineage as any ancient or modern Jew would claim; in line with the biblical tradition of Israel as God’s children, the language of kinship to describe the relationship with God pervades Hebrews (e.g., 2.10–16). Many … ways, some church fathers took this phrase to indicate both Israel’s prophets and (esp. Plato’s) philosophy (Clement, Strom. 1.5,9; 6.7,8,11; 7.16; Origen, On First Principles 4.2.4,9). Last days, the end of the present age, awaiting the beginning of the new era. Although Hebrews does not dwell at length on world-ending scenarios, an eager eschatology is manifest at several points (9.26; 13.14). Son, Gk “huios,” preferred title for Jesus in Hebrews. More often than not in the NT, “Son” is part of a longer epithet like “Son of God” or “Son of Man,” but the freestanding “Son” sometimes occurs, notably in the Gospel of John (e.g., 3.35; 5.19) and occasionally in Paul (e.g., Rom 5.10; 8.3,29,32). In ancient Jewish texts, the freestanding “Son” is not common, but the infrequent Tanakh designation of David (and by extension his descendants) as God’s Son, who is anointed into a unique, everlasting relationship with God, enabled the term “Son” to serve as virtual equivalent to Messiah (see 2 Sam 7.14; Ps 2.7; 89.20–37). In addition, while Israel is often referred to as “bnai Yisrael” (Heb, lit., “sons of/children of Israel”) in the Tanakh, Israel is sometimes designated God’s “Son/child” in the singular (e.g., Jer 31.20). Because Jesus is “Son” and his followers are also God’s “sons/children” (Gk “huioi”) in Hebrews (2.10; 12.7), Jesus’ followers become his siblings and therefore will share in the divine patrimony (2.11–12,17). Heir, in Hebrews, as in Paul, to be an heir means one is assured of eternal life and inherits the next world. Here the term specifically designates Jesus and is the functional equivalent of “Son.” Created the worlds, Gk “aionas,” whence “aeons.” Although the word is plural, it does not imply a multiplicity of worlds. See Wisdom’s presence at creation (Prov 8.22; Wis 9.9; Sir 1.4). Philo says similar things about the “logos,” “divine reason” (On the Creation 5.20; 8.30–31). See “Logos,” p. 688. 3:Reflection of God’s glory and the exact imprint of God’s very being, see Prov 8.22–31; Wis 7.25–26; 9.9; Philo, QG 1.57. Wisdom was seen as working alongside God at creation; reflection (as of an object that returns light exactly as it received it) and imprint (as of a coin that exactly reproduces the contours of its originating mold) are ways of expressing the Son’s transmission of God’s nature without any flaw. Glory (Heb “kavod,” Gk “doxa”) was a quality frequently attributed to God (e.g., Ex 16.10; Isa 6.3; Ps 19.1; and many other places). Sustains, lit., “bears.” Purification, see 9.14n. and “The Law,” p. 655. Sat down at the right hand, an implicit evocation of Ps 110.1; the author appeals to this Psalm several times (1.13; 5.6; 7.17; 8.1; 12.2). Majesty, Gk “megalosynēs,” not a title so much as a way to express exuberance over God’s splendor. Several Hebrew words, such as “hod,” “hadar,” and “geʾut,” are translated into English as “majesty” in reference to God’s glory and magnificence. Such terms are typically found in poetry and in contexts where God is effusively praised either as creator or king, so “majesty” suits the high literary style of Hebrews well. See e.g., Job 37.22; 40.10; Ps 21.6[LXX 20.6], 96.6[LXX 95.6], 104.1[LXX 103.1].