1:James, Heb “Ya‘aqov,” Gk “Iakobos” which elides to Lat “Iacomus” to Old French “Gemmes” to Middle English “James.” This is a result of a tendency within Greek dialects in transcribing foreign names to drop K sounds and to assimilate B to M (or M to B); coupled with this is the complicated assimilation to European languages where Lat “IA” becomes “G” or “J.” For another example, Heb “Yavneh” elides to Gk “Iamneia” (English: Jamnia). The NRSV tends to translate the Gk “Iakobos” as “Jacob” when referring to “Old Testament” figures, but as “James” when referring to Jesus-followers. Servant (lit., “slave”) of God, a title, e.g., Deut 34.5. Sifre Deut. 3.24 identifies those who (presumptuously) gave themselves the title (e.g., Solomon in 1 Kings 3.9) and those who received the title from God (e.g., Job in Job 2.3). Lord (Gk “kyrios”), meaning master, like the Heb “Adonai,” substituted for the tetragrammaton. The received text of James uses a standardized opening formula identifying author and addressee(s); see, e.g., Phil 1.1. Lord Jesus Christ, joining “Jesus Christ” to “the Lord” breaches Jewish ideas of monotheism (see b. Sanh. 63a) by partnering God’s name with “another.” However, this may not, according at least to later Jewish sources, constitute forbidden forms of idolatry for Gentiles (Tosafot to b. Sanh. 63b). James approves the belief that “God is one” (2.19). Twelve tribes, Jesus’ followers, appropriating imagery from Israelite sacred history (Ezek 37.19–24 and Josephus, Ant. 11.133), pictured the messianic ideal of the return of the exiled tribes being accomplished in the present (Acts 15.15–21), as opposed to (unredeemed) Israel whose tribes remain in captivity. Dispersion, Gk “diaspora,” Heb “galut,” “golah,” Jewish communities in Gentile lands. Greetings (lit., “rejoice,” Phil 3.1), a frequent letter salutation (see Acts 15.23); see also Gamaliel’s epistles in t. Sanh. 2.6 and b. Sanh. 11b: “To our brothers, inhabitants of the Dispersion (Golah) … Great be your peace always.” 2:My brothers, the opening address of a moral sermon as in m. Taʾan. 2.1. Trials, see Mt 5.10–12. 3:Testing … endurance, Some later rabbinic texts such as Tanh. Num. “behaʿalotekha” name four righteous ancestors (Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, Joseph) who endured various trials to test their faith. This midrash ends by stating that God “tests the righteous” (Ps 11.5). 4:Let endurance, Ps 34.19 says, “Many are the afflictions of the righteous but the Lord delivers him out of all of them.” Prov 3.12 notes how God disciplines those whom God loves. Endurance, Jewish Wisdom literature praises the themes of endurance and steadfastness as tantamount to one’s love of God: Pss. Sol. 14.1 says, “God is faithful to those who truthfully love him, to those who endure his discipline.” Ps 17.3 notes constancy of faith of the righteous when tried. Be … complete, Gen. Rab. 79.5 states that “‘Complete’ means in body, in children, in property … in wisdom.” 5:Wisdom … given you, y. Ber. 4.4, “Grace us with wisdom” (followed by) “You have graced us with wisdom.” Gives to all generously, Prov 16.33 sees all things coming from God. The “Amidah” or “standing” prayer praises “God on high [who] fully gives tender goodness” (“’El ʾelyon gomel ḥasadim tovim”) and then further requests from God discernment, understanding, and wisdom (“deʾah, binah vehaskel”). 6:Like … sea, an image of inconstancy (cf. Philo, Migr. 148, “irresolute … like a boat tossed by the wind”). Midr. Ps. 119.46 describes those tossed around “who grasp the rope by both ends” looking for salvation, like those wavering between God and Baal (1 Kings 18.21). See Ps 34.4–6 (HB vv 5–7) for the power of faith. 7–8: Double-minded, Midr. Mishle 12.20 refers to two minds (lit., “two kidneys”) that will bend a person toward good but also away from it; two hearts are both good and evil advisers (Eccl 10.12; Ps 32.10 [HB v 11]). James extols those who have steadfast love, which comes from single-hearted integrity.

Jewish texts vary in their attitudes toward wealth. Qumran texts such as the Damascus Document 4.17–18, and the Hodayot (1QH 18.22–35) and Prov 1.13 disparage those who gather (ill-gotten) gain (Heb “hon”) while Prov 3.9–10 praises abundance as a reward for giving up one’s first-fruits to God and serving God with acquired wealth (“hon”). See also Deut 5.10; Isa 1.17–19; Prov 19.17. While rabbinic literature sees wealth as anxiety producing (m. Avot 2.8) and notes that Torah scholars must devote their efforts to Torah study even suffering deprivation (m. Avot 6.4 and b. Ber. 5a), it also sees wealth as fitting for righteous scholars (see Avot 6.8; b. Eruv. 86a). In sum, Judaism has no general philosophy of wealth and poverty. 9:Lowly … up (exaltation), Num. Rab. 22 states that God judges fairly, lowering one and raising another (Ps 75.7 [HB v 8]). In this world, the true social order of those deserving praise is often reversed (b. Pesah. 50a). 10–11:And the rich … low (humiliation), see 1 Sam 2.7–8 and for one of many rabbinic examples, see Tanh. Vay. 10, citing Ps 35.5. Because the rich will disappear, Sifre Deut. piska 31 (on Deut 32.15: “and Jeshurun waxed fat and kicked … forsook God”) is the “locus classicus” for the rabbis to show cases where abundance led to sin and perdition, as was said to be the case in the generation of Noah.

12:Blessed … temptation, here as elsewhere this terminology is based on Hebrew usage; e.g., see Ps 1.1, “happy [or “favored are”] those” (Heb “ʾashrei haʾish,” Gk “makarios anēr”). “Ashrei” in the sense of being fortunate or blessed commonly appears in biblical (e.g., 1 Kings 10.8) and in Talmudic (e.g., m. Yoma 8.9) literature, in DSS (1QS 525.1–4); “makarios,” its equivalent in the LXX, appears in the Gospels (e.g., Mt 5.3–12). Temptation (Gk “peirasmos”) is used in Jas 1.2 (NRSV translates “trials”); see Mt 6.13; 26.41, and elsewhere. Midr. Tanh. to Deut 23.15 shows how self-control in the face of temptation leads to eternal life. Endures temptation, God testing the righteous is the theme of Gen. Rab. 32.32 as well as the prologue to Job. Crown of life, according so some rabbinic texts, the righteous wear “crowns” in the next world (signifying spiritual accomplishment) and are able to “see God” (b. Ber. 17a). See also Lk 1.52–53; 6.20–25. Crown, wreath given to athletes, soldiers, and leaders. 13–14:No one … should say … tempted by one’s own desire, Num 15.39–40 warns against following personal lusts, while the commandments of God are meant to prevent sin. 15: Desire … sin … death, Kallah Rabbati 2.6 remarks that lustful thoughts lead to sinful actions and sin kills (also, b. Ber. 33a). Rabbinic literature contains many references to “temptation” and the “evil desire.” For example, b. Sukk. 52a compares the righteous winning the struggle against temptation to one who conquers a mountain; b. Sukk. 52b advises that one can melt and smash the evil urge by engaging in Torah study, suggesting that God will help defeat the evil urge. B. B. Bat. 16b equates the “evil urge,” “satan,” and “the angel of death.” 16:Do not be deceived anticipates the preacher’s style of admonition in the name of God, Midr. Tanh. Vayetze 4: “al titeʾu.” 17:Father of lights, in the DSS the title “prince” (Heb “sar”) of lights seems to allude to the angel Michael (1QM 13.10; 1QS 3.20; cf. CD A 5.18), but James uses the image of light to allude to the Creator of physical and spiritual lights by which one sees true paths and avoids dangerous obstacles (see also Philo, Dreams 1.112–13). No variation, although James may have in mind Mal 3.6, which speaks of God’s unchanging faithfulness to the children of Israel, because of the reference to shadow, it is more likely that this language reflects the Platonic notion (adopted by Philo, Spec. Laws 1.327–329) that eternal forms do not change. 18:Birth … truth, Gen. Rab. 8 (to Gen 1.26) says that at Creation (sometimes called the “birth” of the world—a phrase in the Jewish New Year liturgy) God convened a committee initially comprised of Truth, Mercy, Righteousness, and Peace, to oversee humanity’s formation. Truth and Peace, foreseeing humanity’s true nature, objected to the creation of humans, and Truth was for a period cast out from the divine council (see Ps 85.10–11 [HB (vv 11–12]). First fruits, Jer 2.3 metaphorically defines Israel as God’s first fruits (“reshit”), the choicest of the nations, and Lev. Rab. 36.4 reads the first word of Gen 1.1 (Heb “be-reshit,” “in the beginning”) with this in mind, implying that the world was created for the sake of Israel.

19:Let everyone … speak, see Sir. 5.11; see m. Avot 1.15, “say little and do much.” Slow to anger, m. Avot 5.11 stresses, “be slow to anger; quick to pacify.” 21:Implanted word, see “Implanted Word” in side-bar above. 22:Doers of the word, for Jews, “doers” refers to performing Torah. Some rabbis (b. Shabb. 88a, see Philo, Rewards 79) linked “we will do and we will be obedient” at Sinai (Ex 24.7) to “doers of his word” and “hearers of his word” (cf. Ps 103.18–21). James restricts the “implanted word’s” imperative to the law of showing mercy, particularly toward widows and orphans, and in general keeping the soul from impurity and iniquity (see further v 27). 23–24:Mirror … immediately forget, according to Avot de R. Natan A 22.2, the saintly Hanina ben Dosa counseled that if one’s thoughts were of greater focus than one’s deeds, the thoughts would eventually perish. 25:But those who look … perfect law … liberty, here to look is to meditate on moral laws. B. Men. 99b finds great reward for those who constantly meditate on Torah. Ps 19.7 (HB v 8) states: “The law of the Lord is perfect, reviving the soul.” On the description of revealed law (i.e., Torah) in relation to interior laws of the heart, cf. the twelfth-century commentary of Abraham ibn Ezra to Deut 30.17–19. He sums up the Torah by noting its core tenet: all proper observance depends on the heart and one’s days can be lengthened to enable love. Likewise the law of liberty (2.12) means that the way individuals freely choose to act toward others impacts how God acts toward them (m. Sot. 1.7). People are at liberty to choose their path and so to reap punishment or reward (see Deut 30.16–17). B. Eruv. 54a, referring to Ex 32.16 describing the tablets of the Law as God’s writing “engraved,” reads “engraved” [Heb “ḥarut”] law as if it said “freedom” [Heb “ḥeirut”] law, suggesting that the Torah itself is a law of freedom. 26:Bridle their tongues, Lev 19.16 commands, “You shall not go around as a slanderer among your people.” Num 12.8–10 shows Miriam speaking against Moses and being struck by leprosy. Many Rabbis also noted the ill effects the tongue can cause. For instance, one Rabbi reported in b. Ber 32b that the sin of unguarded speech creates ills within the community and even with one’s relationship with God. Typical is Deut. Rab. 6.14, which explains that the Temple was destroyed for this sin. Traditional Jews have recited for 1500 years a private petition asking God to guard one’s tongue; the prayer is still recited three times a day at the close of the Amidah. Ps 39.2–4 requires muzzling the mouth so as not to sin with that organ. See Prov 11.13 for the danger of gossip; see also Jas 3.5–6, and many wisdom texts from the Tanakh for the value of keeping silent. 27:Religion, here, ethical piety as seen by James’s use of “aspilos” or pureness of heart. God, the Father (lit., “God and father”), implying that God’s nation of Israel is God’s son; Jews would commonly address God as “our Father” as, e.g., in b. Taʾan. 25b (see also Mt 6.9). Care for orphans … distress, James restricts the implanted word to the laws like Ex 22.22 mandating care for orphans and widows. Deut 27.19 proclaims “‘Cursed be anyone who deprives the alien, the orphan, and the widow of justice.’ And all the people shall say, ‘Amen!’” Rabbis preached such good works toward others as for example in m. Taʾan. 2.1: “God saw their works” (Jon 3.10)—not their mourning rituals. Likewise for James, without acts of lovingkindness, confessing belief is worthless. See e.g., Deut 10.18. Unstained by the world, freedom from worldly entrapments stemming from common desires and jealousies; see 4.4. James may also be troubled by exposure to “pagan” mores and assimilation as are b. Moʾed Qat. 16b and b. Ber. 59a, where God weeps over God’s children assimilating among the pagan nations.

1–4: Deut 16.19–20, “You shall not judge unfairly: you shall show no partiality; you shall not take bribes, for bribes blind the eyes of the discerning and upset the plea of the just. Justice, justice shall you pursue, that you may thrive and occupy the land that the Lord your God is giving you,” is one of several passages in the Tanakh admonishing judges to not favor one litigant over another. Midr. Tanh. on this passage explains: “Do not say this one is rich while this one is poor … this one [morally worthy yet financially destitute] should sit beneath [me], and do not have it that the poor stand and that the rich sit … God stands with the poor and not with those who oppress them.” Assembly, Gk “synagogue.” The NRSV tends to translate it as “synagogue” when non-Jesus-followers are involved, and “assembly” when Jesus-followers are in view. The root Aram sense expressed here is “bei knishta” or a place of assembly, like Heb “beit knesset.” James describes a building used for judicial hearings as well as for study, sermons, Torah reading, and punishing (see 2 Cor 11.24). While some scholars have questioned the use the synagogue for prayer in the first century, casual references in Josephus (Ag. Ap. 1.209–211) and Philo (Flaccus 120–123) suggest that prayer was also a function of the institution, especially in the Diaspora. The Gk word “proseuche” (see Acts 16.13) designates the same institution for the same purposes. (See L. I. Levine, “The Second Temple Synagogue: The Formative Years,” in idem., [ed.] The Synagogue in Late Antiquity [Philadelphia: ASOR, 1987] 13–14.) 5:Chosen the poor … heirs of the kingdom, although a Jewish interpretation (m. Sanh. 10.1; see m. Ber. 2.2) of Isa 60.21 lies behind the concept of inheriting the world to come (Heb “olam ha-ba”) this reference to “kingdom” suggests familiarity with the Jesus traditions (Mt 5.3; Lk 6.20) in referring to the eschaton. See also Mt 5.5 and compare Ps 37.11 on the meek inheriting the land. According to m. Sanh. 10.1, “all Israel,” with few exceptions, have a share in the next world. 6:Drag you into court, Ex 23.3 and Lev 19.15 warn judges against favoring the poor (or rich) in a lawsuit. 7:Blaspheme the excellent name, a possible reference to “ḥillul ha-Shem”—publicly making hollow or desecrating the divine name (Lev 22.32), in this case, “Elohim,” which at times connotes “judges” (Ex 22.8). B. Yoma 86b classifies this sin as grievous beyond expiation.

8:Royal law, Lev 19.18, cf. Midr. Sifra to Lev 19.18, which calls this commandment “the supreme rule” that is served by all of scripture’s tenets. (See “The Concept of Neighbor,” p. 645.) For Lev 19.18 see also Mt 22.39; Mk 12.31; Lk 10.27. 9:Partiality, favoring one law or litigant and neglecting another. Convicted by the law, Lev 19.15. 10–11: Fails in one point … transgressor, the sentiment that to break one is to break all is unique for any properly explained Jewish text; perhaps James is thinking of Deut 27.26: “Cursed be he that confirms not all the words of this law to do them. And all the people shall say, Amen.” T. Sebu. 3.6 offers an almost identical list of transgressions and concludes: “[Who is a complete lawbreaker?] … Even he who does one transgression denies the One who commanded it.” Like James, Midr. Pitaron Torah Kedoshim claims one fulfills “love of neighbor” every time one refrains from breaking an ethical injunction in Torah. 11:You shall not commit adultery [Ex 20.13], … You shall not murder [Ex 20.15]. 12:Law of liberty, see 1.25n. The point of the law is to free humanity from the domination of evil lures. As one chooses, so God rewards and punishes. According to Kinyan Torah (now connected to m. Avot, as 6.2), the only free people are those who engage in Torah study. 13:For judgment will be … no mercy, rabbis called this “measure for measure,” and it is the major principle of divine justice (see b. Sanh. 90a), already appearing in the Tanakh (e.g., Ex 2.20–23). Mercy triumphs over judgment, although the expression mercy conquers (Heb “kovesh”) judgment (Sifre Num. 134) appears with a proof text from Mic 7.19–20 alongside many similar rabbinic teachings, these passages do not express James’s central point. His point concerns the moral background of the one seeking divine mercy. The best rabbinic parallel is found in Gen. Rab. 33: “Woe to the wicked who turn around the power of mercy (Heb “raḥamim”) to the power of severe judgment (Heb “din”) (e.g., the unmitigated violence perpetrated by, and in turn the divine wrath executed upon, the generation of the flood) … Fortunate are the righteous who turn around the power of severe judgment to the power of mercy” (e.g., Noah by feeding every living thing on the ark).

14:Faith, for James a mental construct entailing theological certainties, or creeds. For James, these creeds must be shown by obedience to revealed law and innate moral notions. 15:Naked … food, see Isa 58.7: “Is it not to share your bread with the hungry, and bring the homeless poor into your house; when you see the naked, to cover them, and not to hide yourself from your own kin?” 18: I by my works will show you my faith, only by doing good works, especially at the cost of personal deprivation, can one demonstrate trust in God’s system. This section can be seen as a correction of those who understood Paul (Rom 4.5–6) as dismissing the importance of works. James mentions only ethical rather than ritual laws but we cannot draw any conclusions about his personal behavior from his silence on the ritual laws. 19:Even the demons believe, belief in the existence of the one God. 21–24: Abraham is justified (lit., “made righteous”) by works in his willingness to sacrifice Isaac (see Gen 22). Our ancestor Abraham … Isaac on the altar, that is, Abraham our father (Heb “Avraham avinu”), the epithet is found everywhere in Jewish writings, ancient and modern. Like James, the thirteenth-century Spanish commentator Nahmanides (Commentary on Gen 15.5–6) observes that Gen 22.15–17 completes the demonstration of Abraham’s faith so Abraham could now receive the promise of numerous descendants. In Gen 15.5–6 Abraham is promised“‘Look toward heaven and count the stars, if you are able to count them … so shall your descendants be.’ And he believed the Lord; and the Lord reckoned it to him as righteousness.” When Abraham was told to sacrifice his only son Isaac (Gen 22.2) he somehow believed God would still give him many descendants from this son. After binding Isaac to an altar he is told in Gen 22.16–18, “Because you have done this, and have not withheld your son, your only son, … I will make your offspring as numerous as the stars of heaven … by your offspring shall all the nations of the earth gain blessing for themselves, because you have obeyed my voice.” He has no doubt he would have descendants, and this promise was confirmed because he acted to obey the test. The repetition of this promise underscores James’s point that faith is demonstrated in works. See also 1 Macc 2.5 and Philo, Abr. 262, which both preceded James on this interpretation. Although Paul (Rom 4.18–23; Gal 3.6) and apparently before him Nehemiah (Neh 9.7–8), did not see Abraham’s obedience as having any bearing on the claim of Gen 15.6—that by his belief (Heb “emunah”; Gk “pistis”) was his justification (Heb “hatsdakah”)—this does not suggest the interpretation would be unacceptable to Jews. The French commentator Rashi (eleventh century) in his commentary to Gen 15.6 likely held that view. 23:Scripture … reckoned to him as righteousness … friend of God, see Isa 41.8; and 2 Chr 20.7. The Palestinian targumic tradition (Tg. Neof. 1, Frg. Tg. Ps.-J.) and Philo (On Sobriety 56) explained Gen 18.17 (God confiding his plans for Sodom and Gomorrah) by recourse to this friendship (“Shall I hide from Abraham what I am about to do”). 25:Rahab the prostitute, Josh 2.8–11. According to b. Meg. 14a-b, she married Joshua; see also Mt 1.5. 26:Body … spirit, see Gen 2.7 (human life is dependent on spirit/breath). For the rabbis, the body needs the soul to live (b. Ber. 10a; b. Moʾed Qat. 28b–29a).

1:Teachers, your students will compound your slight error and in turn will teach nonsense that will lead their students to seek foreign values (Avot de R. Natan A.11). See Acts 13.1; 1 Cor 12.28–29; Eph 4.11; 1 Tim 1.7. 2:Perfect, those who control their thoughts and actions that they do not misspeak, let alone misbehave. Ps 39.1 speaks of bridling the tongue; Prov 10.31 speaks of the mouth of the just; Sir 5.11–6.1 (see 28.12–26) warns against being “double-tongued.” See also Prov 17.28 (“Even fools who keep silent are considered wise”) and Eccl 5.2 which counsels silence. Shimon ben Gamaliel (m. Avot 1.17) concluded the best medicine for the body’s welfare is silence. Likewise b. Pesah. 99a counsels silence. B. Meg. 18a contains a witty proverb: “A word is worth one sela; silence is worth two.” 5:Tongue … exploits, speaking ill of others is worse than the worst of sins (Midr. Tanh. Lev., “Metzora” 4–5). 6:Fire, see Ps 120.3–4 (HB vv 4–5): “Deceitful tongue … arrows … glowing coals,” see Sir 28.11–12. 9:Lord and Father, “Lord” suggests a master-slave association while “father” suggests a nurturing relationship. The Talmud in various places (e.g., B. Bat. 10a) notes that Israel is sometimes compared to a son (e.g., Deut 14.1) and sometimes a slave (e.g., Lev 25.55). The Jewish New Year liturgy notes the dual roles: “If [we be] as children, be merciful with us as the mercy of a father for children. If as slaves, our eyes [look toward and] depend upon You, until You be gracious to us.” 10:Blessing and cursing, that blessing and curse depend on the tongue is highlighted in Mid. Tannaim to Deut 11.26–28 in an exposition of Prov 18.21, “Death and life are in the power of the tongue, and those who love it will eat its fruits.”

15:Wisdom … from above … earthly, unspiritual, Avot de R. Natan B. 43 contrasts divine, gentle wisdom and earthly, wicked wisdom. 16–18:Envy … peace, James’s words here concerning heavenly and earthly wisdom is echoed by rabbis (b. Ber. 17a) for whom the divine realms are devoid of envy, hatred, and ambition. Everyone requires peace (Deut. Rab. 5.12 on Sabbath observance). Many passages (e.g., Num. Rab. 11.7; Sifre Num. 42) extol peace, the reward for righteousness, using the imagery of Isa 32.17. M. Avot 4.21 sums up this common rabbinic sentiment: “Jealousy, lust and seeking honor drive a person from the world.”

1–2:Those conflicts, rabbis (e.g., m. Avot 5.17) often speak disparagingly of “arguments over doctrines (Heb “maḥloket”) not for the sake of heaven.” 3:Ask and do not receive, prayer is the proper way to gain money for needs, not for worldly pleasures. See Ps 37, esp. v 4. 4:Adulterers, standard denunciation of idolatry, or putting some other being or object in the place of God (e.g., Hos 1–3; Jer 3.2). Friendship with the world, orientation toward accepting material goods as the highest value, and consequently denigrating care for the neighbor (see 2.15–16). Jn 12.31 and 14.30 speak of Satan (the enemy of God) as the ruler of this world. See “devil,” v 7 below. Enmity with God, see Ps 6.8–10 [HB (vv 9–11]. 5:Scripture says, an unknown text. God yearns jealously, Zohar 2 (Ex, Terumah 162b) claims God’s gift of the soul enables one to accomplish such love. 6:Grace to the humble, Prov 3.34[LXX] “To the scorners he is scornful but to the humble he shows grace.” Also note traditional Hebrew prayer requesting grace, and lovingkindness and mercy: “Sim shalom … ḥen, vaḥesed veraḥamim” (see reference to this prayer in b. Ber. 18a). 7:Submit … he will draw near, m. Avot 2.4 says “Make your will God’s will that he may make his will your will. Resist the devil, B. Ber. 5a counsels Torah study to stifle temptation and guard against the evil urge. 8:Cleanse your hands … hearts, imagery from Ps 24.4–5 (HB vv 3–4). Draw near, y. Ber. 9.5 cites a lost work, the Scroll of the Pious, which apparently contrasted drawing close and departing: “Depart from me one day and I will depart from you two [days].” See also Deut 30.2–3. 10:Humble … exalt, see Mic 6.8; Ps 107.41; 113.7.

11:Do not speak evil … judges the law, y. Peʾah 1.1 relates that the speaker of evil denies divine justice. 12:There is one … judge, see m. Avot 4.8, “Do not judge on your own, for there is none qualified to judge alone, only the One.” God alone has the right to judge, since God gave the law and will judge in accordance with it. Judge your neighbor, Mt 7.1 discourages judging neighbors, not court judgments. The rabbis advised always to judge in the most favorable light (Heb “kaf zekhut”) and assume others are acting properly (m. Avot 1.6); Lev. 19.15 advises “with justice you shall judge your neighbor.” 13–15: An extended paraphrase of Prov 27.1. 14:What tomorrow will bring, building on this image, the sages counsel against imagining the future (b. Ber. 9b). See also Eccl 10.14. What is your life, b. Yoma 87b asks, “What is our life?” The next sentence gives the implied answer. A mist … vanishes, see Ps 103.15 (HB v 16); Job 7.9; Eccl 12.7. 15:If the Lord wishes, while “God willing” is rare in Talmudic literature (b. B. Bat. 55a has “with the help of heaven”), it becomes frequent in the spoken word of Jews (“im yertz[eh] ha-Shem,” “If God [lit., ‘the Name’] wills it”). 16:Boast, ancient Jewish aphorisms warn against boasting, e.g., “Boast not of tomorrow; for you do not know what may transpire on the day” (Prov 27.1). Paul, 1 Cor 1.31, cites Jer 9.23–24 that one cannot boast except about the Lord. 17:Anyone … commits sin, the rabbis had harsher expressions (following Eccl 6.3): One who learns but does not practice—better such a one had been stillborn! (Midr. Tanh., Ki Tavo 4 to Deut 11.13–17).

1:Rich, see 1.9n., wealth leads to corruption. Miseries … coming to you, riches are of no use at the end, whether at one’s individual death or on the day of judgment (see Mt 19.23). 2–3:Riches … rotted … gold and silver … rusted, see Mt 6.19–21. Treasure for the last days, see y. Peʾah 1.1: treasure of deeds is for the next world, that of wealth for this world. 4:The wages … cry out, see Deut 24.14–15. Lord of hosts, reference to Hag 2.8 “The silver is mine, and the gold is mine, says the Lord of hosts.” 5:You have fattened … slaughter, see Deut 32.15 for indulgence leading to rebellion. “Fat” is occasionally a metaphor for intransigent wickedness, e.g., Ps 119.70. 6:Murdered the righteous one, the poor, righteous person is condemned by the protected rich; see Wis 2.10–20.

7–8:Coming of the Lord, generally taken as a reference to the expectation that Jesus would return. The ensuing verses speak of the Lord, i.e., God (compassionate and merciful after Ex 34.6–7) and the reference here might be to God’s salvation or judgment day (Mal 4.5; Isa 59.20). Early and the late rains, October and April (Deut 11.14; Jer 5.24; Joel 2.23). 9:Do not … judged, see m. Sot. 1.7 and b. Shabb. 27b for the same idea phrased positively: God is the judge (Gen 18.25) whose verdict is final. The Judge is standing at the doors, probably Jesus, possibly God. 10:Suffering … the prophets, prophets (e.g., see Jer 38, and the first-century Gk Lives of the Prophets) were persecuted. M. Taʾan. 2.4 lists prophets and holy people who endured suffering and were saved. 11:Endurance of Job, James refers to Job 1–2; some rabbis saw the book as a parable, composed by Moses, teaching that God tries the one God loves (b. B. Bat. 15a). Endurance (Gk “hupomone”; also in Heb 12.1) is correctly rendered “endurance” as opposed to “patience” as in KJV. Compassionate and merciful, e.g., Ex 34.6; Ps 103.8. 12:Do not swear, reflects Mt 5.34–37; see also b. B. Metz. 49a; Eccl 5.4.

13:Suffering … pray … cheerful … praise, speech should be appropriate to the circumstance. 14:Elders of the church, (Heb “zekeynim”; Gk “presbyteroi”), see Acts 15; 1 Tim 5.17,19; Titus 1.5; 1 Pet 5.1,5; 2 Jn 1; 3 Jn 1, b. Sanh. 101a, Prov 15.29. Church (Gk “ekklesia”), a congregation or assembly, synonymous with “synagogue”; Heb “edah” or “qahal” (see LXX Prov 5.14). Pray over them, b. B. Bat. 116a speaks of the sage praying for the ill person, presumably at bedside. Anointing, used in healing, see Mk 6.13; James seems to speak of not holy oil but of medicinal magic (cf. Lev 14.15–18) or of medicinal oil (Isa 1.6). Name of the Lord, perhaps referring not to the name of Jesus (see Mk 16.17–18) but to God’s name (see LXX Ps 118.26). Y. Maʿas. S. 2.1 (repeated in y. Shabb. 14.4) refers to ancient healing practices by intoning enchantments; James says to use the name of God (likely to exclude names of angels or other spirits) when anointing with oil. The Talmudic passage remains unclear if the healer puts the oil on his own head or on the patient’s. 15:Prayer of faith will save the sick … raise them up … be forgiven, see e.g., 4Q521 [“Messianic Apocalypse”] “for the heavens and the earth will listen to his anointed one. . . Heal the sick, resurrect the dead, announce glad tidings to the poor.” The “Amidah” prayer states: “Lord… you uphold the falling … heal the sick … free those in bondage.” Committed sins … forgiven, The last rights, “extreme unction,” of the Catholic Church originated in the twelfth century. The Catholic Church may have adapted these verses to institute the rite. 16:Confess your sins to one another, Jewish sources know of confession to God (Ps 38.15–18) and to wronged parties Lev 19.18, Deut 5.14 and Sir 5.14 (“Forgive your neighbor the wrong he has done and then your sins will be pardoned when you pray”). Neh 9.2 suggests communal confession: they “stood and confessed their sins and the iniquities of their ancestors.” And pray for one another, when you ask for another, your needs are given (b. B. Kamma 92a based on Job 42.10). Prayer of the righteous, b. Taʾan. 8a recommends having a pious person pray for you. 17–18:Elijah … harvest, see 1 Kings 17.1 and 18.41–46, although the account does not explicitly quote Elijah’s praying for drought (the standing posture implies it) or for it to cease (his beseeching [“taḥanun”] posture implies it). 20:Brings back a sinner, see Dan 12.3 (“those who lead many to righteousness”); the message concludes by stressing the benefits of repentance, a major Jewish theme from Deuteronomy onwards. And will cover a multitude of sins, see Ps 32.1 (“Happy are those whose transgression is forgiven, whose sin is covered”) and Prov 10.12 (cited by 1 Pet 4.8, “love covers a multitude of sins”) for near linguistic parallel.