Overview
The Gospel of Luke tells the story of Jesus’ life from his birth in Nazareth and ministry in Galilee to his journey to Jerusalem that culminates with his death, resurrection, and ascension.1 Another way to put this is that the Gospel relays how God has fulfilled his covenant promises, that is, the coming of the kingdom in the person of Jesus Christ. Jesus, as the Spirit-anointed Messiah, the Son of Man, and the Son of God, comes to bring salvation, through the cross and resurrection, to the poor, the outcasts, and any and all who turn to God in repentance and faith—to those who are disciples of Jesus.2
Author
The author of what is called “the Gospel according to Luke” is not named in the Gospel, and he tells us that he was not an eyewitness to its events (1:2). Tradition ascribes the Gospel to Luke. Some express doubts about Lukan authorship, but there are good reasons for thinking that Luke is the author. The title on the third Gospel, ascribing the Gospel to Luke, was probably present by the early second century AD, which suggests that we have early evidence that Luke wrote the third Gospel.
We should note that the author of the third Gospel also wrote the Acts of the Apostles, and we shall see why this is important for authorship when we consider below the “we” passages in Acts. A number of factors lead to the conclusion that the third Gospel and Acts were written by the same author. First, both books are dedicated to the same person, Theophilus (Luke 1:3; Acts 1:1). Second, Acts 1:1 refers to the “first book,” showing that Acts represents the second volume of a two-volume work. Third, the language and style of both books are quite similar. Fourth, a number of common themes unite the two books: emphasis on the Holy Spirit, inclusion of the Gentiles, fulfillment of salvation history, etc. Fifth, Acts 1:1–11 clearly picks up from where Luke 24 leaves off, referring to the ascension (Luke 24:51; Acts 1:2, 9–11), Jesus’ resurrection (Luke 24; Acts 1:3), and the disciples’ lingering in Jerusalem until the Spirit is poured out (Luke 24:49; Acts 1:4–5, 8).
Lukan authorship is supported by early church tradition, which consistently ascribes the third Gospel to Luke the physician. Luke is named only three times in the NT (Col. 4:14; 2 Tim. 4:11; Philem. 24), and thus he does not stand out on the pages of the NT, as if he were prominent. The reason he is well known is not because he is named in the NT; he is well known because the third Gospel and the Acts of the Apostles have been attributed to him. This is a significant argument in favor of Lukan authorship––the early church did not attribute the Gospel to him because he was famous. Actually, the Gospel is attributed to a minor character in the NT, which supports the notion that Luke was the author. The earliest extant title of the Gospel bears Luke’s name, and we also read in the Muratorian Canon, composed in the second century, that Luke wrote the third Gospel and was Paul’s companion. The anonymous Anti-Marcionite prologue, written in the later part of the second century, identifies Luke as from Syrian Antioch and as a physician, saying that he lived till he was eighty-four and was a follower of Paul. Irenaeus also credits the third Gospel to Luke, who followed and preached with Paul (Against Heresies 3.1.1; 3.14.1). Tertullian credits the third Gospel to Luke, noting also that he was Paul’s companion (Against Marcion 4.2). The early papyrus P72 (c. AD 200) designates the Gospel as “According to Luke.” Clement of Alexandria also credits Luke as the author (Miscellanies 5.12.82). Origen attributes the Gospel to Luke, saying that Luke wrote for Gentiles (Eusebius, Ecclesiastical History 6.25.5). Eusebius assigns both Luke and Acts to Luke, telling us he was a doctor and from Antioch (Ecclesiastical History 3.4.6). Hobart supported the notion that Luke the physician was the author because of technical medical language used.3 Cadbury, however, refuted the notion that technical medical language is found in the Gospel.4 Such an argument does not refute the notion that Luke was a doctor, of course. It only argues that he does not use distinctive medical terminology in the Gospel.
Evidence for Lukan authorship, since both Luke and Acts come from the same author, can also be deduced from the book of Acts. Such a conclusion can be drawn from the famous “we” passages in Acts, which are texts in which the author uses the first-person plural (Acts 16:10–17; 20:5–16; 21:1–18; 27:1–28:16). It is natural to conclude that the first-person plural signifies occasions on which the author was present at the events taking place in those passages. Some think the first-person plurals convey verisimilitude, but this is scarcely satisfying because, if that were the case, we might wonder why the author does not use it more. We can eliminate as the author of Acts any person present in the events recorded in the book outside the “we” passages. Luke emerges as a prime candidate (with perhaps Titus being the only other serious candidate), which fits with church tradition, as we have seen. Significantly, Pauline letters written outside the time of the “we” sections of Acts omit Luke’s name, but Luke is mentioned in letters that were probably written from Rome (Col. 4:14; Philem. 24), when Luke was with Paul (Acts 27–28). The reference in Colossians supports the idea that Luke was a Gentile, although some think he was Jewish.5 To sum up, there are good reasons to think that Luke was the author of the third Gospel as well as of the Acts of the Apostles.
Date and Occasion
It is difficult to establish a secure date for the Gospel of Luke. Some scholars date the book to the second century, but most date it AD 75–90. A number of arguments are given for a date between AD 75 and AD 90: (1) Luke supposedly looks back on the fall of Jerusalem in AD 70. (2) He uses the Gospel of Mark, which was reputedly written in the 60s. (3) His Gospel must be dated later since he speaks of “many” who have compiled a narrative before him. (4) The theology of the book is early catholic and thus must be later.
A later date is possible, but I suggest the Gospel was written sometime in the early 60s for the following reasons, though none of these reasons can prove an early date. Thus the arguments for an early date are suggestive instead of determinative. (1) There is no reference to the fall of Jerusalem (AD 70), and it seems Luke would have indicated a fulfillment of Jesus’ prophecy of its fall in Luke 21. (2) Nothing is said of Nero’s persecution of Christians in Rome (AD 64) in either Luke or Acts. (3) Luke omits any reference in Acts to the death of James in AD 62 or the death of Paul in the late 60s. (4) Mark could have been written in the 50s or early 60s, and thus Luke may have been written in the early to mid-60s as well.
That Luke used sources is immediately evident from the prologue of his Gospel (1:1–4). He indicates that many others have written accounts of the Gospel traditions and that these traditions have been handed down to the church. Luke specifically states that he “followed all things closely for some time past” (1:3), showing that he thoroughly sifted through the information available to him. What actual sources did Luke use? This is a matter of speculation, of course, and so dogmatism is excluded.
Most NT scholars still agree that Luke used the Gospel of Mark when he composed his Gospel (although this theory is contested rather strongly by a significant number of scholars). The reason for this is that a substantial portion of Mark’s Gospel, often including the exact words from Mark, is used in Luke’s Gospel. Of course, the argument as it is stated above could support Lukan priority, but for a variety of complex reasons such a view is unlikely.
Also, both Luke and Matthew may have used a common source that either was a written document or consisted of oral tradition. This material is designated “Q” (from the German Quelle, “source”). Unfortunately, Q has not survived and possibly never even existed in written form. Approximately 230 verses appear in both Matthew and Luke but not in Mark’s Gospel. A common source is possible, since the wording of this common tradition that Luke and Matthew share is remarkably similar and sometimes is exactly the same. But if the wording is so similar, then perhaps Luke borrowed it directly from Matthew (very few scholars think Matthew borrowed from Luke). This is improbable, however, because Luke uses the same sayings that Matthew does and places them in completely different contexts. It is highly unlikely that the same sayings would be transposed by Luke, or that Luke would break up Matthew’s tightly organized Sermon on the Mount (Matthew 5–7). Therefore, the idea that Luke and Matthew both used and adapted a common source or sources, without directly depending on the other’s Gospel, is the most likely, though we cannot be sure if the source or sources were oral or written.
Lastly, any material in Luke’s Gospel not dependent on Mark or Q is usually labeled “L.” This is simply a convenient way of indicating that Luke had other sources of information. It is impossible to know how many.
We should also not rule out the possibility that Luke received information from Mary the mother of Jesus, the disciples of John the Baptist, Manaen (an early disciple; cf. Acts 13:1), Cleopas (Luke 24:18), or others. Many NT scholars doubt that Luke depended on any of these persons. But it is quite probable that Luke would have spoken to living persons about what they had heard and seen of Jesus when he came into contact with them. Any contemporary researcher would have done the same, and in the ancient world such a procedure would have been prized just as highly, as the early church father Papias in the second century makes clear (Eusebius, Ecclesiastical History 3.39.3–4).
Some scholars have maintained that Luke’s use of his sources shows that his writing lacks historical reliability and that he was writing to edify the church and to propound his own theology, not to transmit what really happened. First, we should note that such a position contravenes Luke’s own statement of his purpose in the prologue of the Gospel (Luke 1:1–4), in which he indicates that accuracy in the work is one of his concerns. Second, it is methodologically flawed to pit edification and theology against history. All history writing is interpretive to some degree because writers must select which themes will be emphasized. Clearly, Luke does have a distinctive theology, but it is not logically necessary to conclude that such interpretive selection and presentation by an author obviates historical reliability. The same point applies to edification; i.e., what really happened may also be edifying.
Third, Luke’s use of the Gospel of Mark (the most common theory) shows that he was interested in historical accuracy. For example, the sayings of Jesus shared by Luke and Mark usually have only minor differences. The modern reader must remember that the ancient writer was not always interested in exactly what was said. Luke would naturally be content at times to paraphrase Jesus’ words and actions. Such a paraphrase would be inaccurate only if it deceived a reader about what actually happened. Luke was not providing a transcript of the words of Jesus, but neither was he freely inventing them; he clearly felt free to record in his own style what happened. Lastly, when Luke’s account differs from the other Synoptics, we ought to recall that none of the accounts claims to be exhaustive. Thus, one should not demand that any Gospel writer tell the whole story. All of our questions about historicity will never be answered when reading the Gospels. But humility and the inspiration of Scripture suggest that we should give the writer the benefit of doubt.
Genre and Literary Features
We noted above the close relationship that exists among the three synoptic Gospels: Matthew, Mark, and Luke. Here some of the distinctives in Luke’s Gospel will be noted, and we also see some of the ways in which he diverges from the first two Gospels. Of course, some of the unique elements of the third Gospel are represented in Luke’s theology and will be covered below. Luke’s historical interest emerges at the outset of the story in the prologue of the Gospel (1:1–4). He writes to Theophilus so that the latter will know the truth of the “narrative” (1:1) he has so carefully researched. The story commences with events that take place in the reign of Herod the Great (1:5). Luke also sets the historical context for the inauguration of the Baptist’s ministry by informing readers about political and religious leaders who held offices at that time (3:1–2). The Lukan historical interest is not limited to the Gospel but continues in Acts.
When we consider the Lukan infancy narratives (1:5–2:52), differences with Matthew’s stand out. Luke zeroes in on the birth of the Baptist and the experiences of his parents, Elizabeth and Zechariah. At the same time, in contrast to Matthew, Mary’s perspective on the birth of Jesus is featured, and thus we read about Gabriel’s appearance to Mary, the visit to Elizabeth, her song of praise, her pondering in her heart the things said and done in those days. Luke also relays the story of Jesus’ birth in Bethlehem, precipitated by the census commanded by Caesar Augustus. At the same time, only Luke tells us of the revelation of Jesus’ birth to shepherds and of their subsequent visit. Unique to Luke as well is the narrative of Jesus’ presentation in the temple and the words of Simeon and Anna on that occasion. Finally, only in the Lukan infancy narrative do we read the narrative of Jesus’ traveling with his parents to Jerusalem for Passover, where he stays behind for conversations with religious leaders in the temple. If we leave the infancy narrative for a moment, we also see that the Lukan genealogy (3:23–38) differs from what we find in Matthew 1:1–17.
The structure of Luke is difficult to trace, since the account is mixed with events, teaching, and parables, and thus the story is organized somewhat loosely, especially in 9:51–19:27. We do not find the neat and crisp organization that we find in Matthew, and the overall structure of Mark is clearer as well. Still, there is a discernible outline, which I will explain in the commentary. Perceiving where the story is going is particularly difficult from Luke 9:51 to 19:27, but if we observe the text closely, we see that Jesus is slowly traveling to Jerusalem to suffer, die, and be raised. Jesus in the Gospel travels from earth to heaven. He is born in Bethlehem, ministers in Galilee, makes his way to Jerusalem to suffer and die, and then is raised from the dead and ascends back to God. The travel narrative also instructs believers in Jesus about what it means to be his disciples.
Luke’s sermon on the plain (6:17–49) shares many characteristics with Matthew’s Sermon on the Mount (Matt. 5:1–7:29), but Luke tells us that the sermon was given “on a level place” (6:17), and he includes both blessings and woes (6:20–26). Also, the Lukan account of the walk to Emmaus after Jesus’ resurrection is not replicated elsewhere, and all of the skills of Luke as a narrator are evident in the story (24:13–35). So too the final resurrection appearance, the commission of the disciples, and Jesus’ ascension have a distinctive Lukan touch (24:36–53).
Luke is also characterized by distinctive parables not found in other Gospels. We think of the parable of the good Samaritan (10:25–37), the friend at midnight (11:5–8), the rich man who plans his retirement (12:15–21), the parables of the lost sheep, the lost coin, and the two lost sons (15:3–32), the parable of the unrighteous manager (16:1–13), the parable of the rich man and Lazarus (16:19–31), the parable of the unrighteous judge and the widow (18:1–8), and the parable of the Pharisee and tax collector (18:9–14).
Luke also has a particular concern for the little people, for the nobodies in the world. Of course, Luke records Jesus’ concern for those who are neglected by the rich and the powerful or who belong to what C. S. Lewis calls the “inner ring”—the corridors of power. Luke’s interest in women stands out in the Gospel, and thus we hear the birth narrative from Mary’s perspective (1:26–2:52), and Luke may have learned about these stories from Mary herself. Luke also concentrates on Elizabeth, the wife of Zechariah (1:5–7, 13, 24–25, 36, 39–45), and Anna (2:36–38). Jesus also mentions the widow of Zarephath (4:26) and the queen of Sheba (11:31). Jesus shows his compassion in healing Simon’s mother-in-law (4:38–39) and the woman disabled for eighteen years so that she could not stand erect (13:10–17). So too he raises from the dead the only son of the widow of Nain (7:11–17). Only Luke tells us the beautiful story of the sinful woman who enters Simon the Pharisee’s house, washes Jesus’ feet with her tears, and is forgiven of her sins (7:36–50). And we would not know, if it were not for Luke, how women travel with Jesus and support his ministry (8:1–3). Like Matthew and Mark, Luke includes the accounts of Jesus’ healing the woman who had a hemorrhage for twelve years and his raising of Jairus’s daughter from the dead (8:40–56).
The unforgettable account of Mary and Martha is also exclusive to Luke, in which Mary listens to the Lord’s word while Martha is frustrated because Mary is not helping her serve (10:38–42). Jesus also corrects a woman who holds a sentimental view of what it means to be in relationship with him (11:27–28). Jesus tells parables from the perspective of both men and women, and thus a man planting a mustard seed is matched by a woman putting leaven in flour (13:18–21). The parable of the lost sheep reflects in the ancient world the arena of men (15:3–7), but the parable of the lost coin the world of women (15:8–10). We see the same concern for women when Jesus speaks of the fate of two women who are grinding grain (17:35) and when he recounts the parable of a widow deprived of justice (18:1–8; cf. 20:47). Jesus singles out and commends a poor widow who gives all she owns to the Lord (21:1–4). Women weep for Jesus as he goes to the cross (23:27–31) and prepare spices to anoint his body for burial (23:55–56). The report of the resurrection is announced to women first (24:1–11, 22–24).
Luke shows Jesus’ love for those excluded in Jewish society. For instance, the birth of Jesus is revealed by angels to shepherds who are not from the elite in Israelite society (2:8–20). Jesus has mercy on the lowest of the low in Jewish society, casting out demons from the demonized (4:31–37, 41; 8:26–39; 9:37–42) and healing lepers (5:12–16; cf. 7:21–22) and the blind (4:18; 7:21; 18:35–43; cf. 14:13, 21). Jesus teaches that hated Samaritans could also belong to God (10:25–37; 17:11–19). We see his love for outsiders when he summons tax collectors and sinners to repentance. Jesus called Levi (Matthew; Matt. 9:9) to be his disciple, attending a feast at which other tax collectors and sinners congregate, and as a result the Pharisees criticize him for having table fellowship with such (Luke 5:27–32; cf. 7:29, 34). The three parables of the lost sheep, the lost coin, and the two lost sons (15:3–32) are told to defend Jesus’ love for and acceptance of tax collectors and sinners (15:1–2). In the same way, the parable of the Pharisee and tax collector reveals that the tax collector is right with God instead of the Pharisee (18:9–14). And the story of Zacchaeus teaches that even the most despised members of society can be saved if they repent (19:1–10).
Theology of Luke
The theology of Luke in the Gospel is rich and multifaceted. We could include Acts as well, since both volumes were composed by Luke. Still, the discussion is limited here to Luke, as we consider briefly some central themes.
Covenant
In the covenants God makes with his people—the covenants with Abraham (e.g., Gen. 12:1–3), David (e.g., 2 Samuel 7), and the new covenant (e.g., Jer. 31:31–34)—the Lord promises to save his people. From the outset of Luke’s Gospel the fulfillment of the covenant, the realization of God’s plan, takes center stage. The very first verse of the Gospel refers to the “narrative of the things that have been accomplished among us” (1:1; cf. 1:45). John the Baptist fulfills the role of Elijah by turning the hearts of the people back to the Lord (Luke 1:16–17; cf. Mal. 3:1; 4:6). Mary is told by Gabriel that her son will sit on David’s throne and reign forever (Luke 1:32–33), showing that the Davidic covenant is realized in Jesus. Zechariah celebrates the fulfillment of the same promise, rejoicing that redemption has come to Israel (1:68–69), and he sees the realization of God’s promises in victory over Israel’s enemies (1:70–71). Mary affirms the same theme, saying that the Lord will fulfill the covenant with Abraham by overthrowing the nations opposed to him (1:52–55). Still, the triumph over the nations takes place initially in a way that Zechariah and Mary did not comprehend: the covenant is established in Jesus’ sacrificial blood (22:20).
Kingdom
The kingdom represents God’s rule, and the covenants are the means by which God’s kingdom promises are secured. Luke uses the phrase “kingdom of God” thirty-two times, and the word kingdom in seven other instances refers to God’s kingdom or Jesus’. God’s kingdom denotes his rule, particularly his saving promises by which the world will be reclaimed for his lordship. Luke teaches that the kingdom will come with the King, with the Messiah, who is, of course, Jesus of Nazareth. Luke can summarize Jesus’ teaching as teaching about the kingdom of God (4:43; 8:1; 9:11), and Jesus sends out his disciples to proclaim the same message (9:1–2; cf. 9:60). The kingdom manifests itself in healing (9:11; 10:9) and in Jesus’ exorcisms (11:20), and his healings and exorcisms anticipate the new creation that is coming. The kingdom has come supremely in the person of Jesus (17:20–21). The kingdom seems nonexistent to the world and to Israel’s religious because it is as small as a mustard seed and hidden like leaven (13:18–21). In the smallness and hiddenness of the kingdom we see the “already-but-not-yet” dimension of the kingdom. The kingdom has come in Jesus, but disciples are also to pray for the consummation of the kingdom by praying “Your kingdom come” (11:2). We look forward to the consummation of the kingdom, to the messianic feast awaiting us (13:29; 14:15; 21:31; 22:16, 18, 29–30).
Christology
A major theme in Luke, of course, is the person of Jesus himself. The Christology of Luke is evident in some of the titles given to him. Jesus is understood to be a prophet (4:24; 7:16, 39; 13:33; 24:19). The words “listen to him” (9:35) spoken by God about Jesus at the transfiguration clearly echo Deuteronomy 18:15, showing that Jesus is the Prophet who succeeds Moses, God’s last and final Word to his people.
A major theme in the Gospel is that Jesus is the Christ, the Son of David, who fulfills the covenant made with David (2 Samuel 7; 1 Chronicles 17), which pledged that the Davidic dynasty would be everlasting. Jesus, Gabriel says, is given David’s throne (Luke 1:32), signaling he is the Davidic King.
The shepherds are told that the baby born in Bethlehem is “Christ the Lord” (2:11). Simeon does not die before he sees and holds the Christ (2:26). The demons recognize from the outset that Jesus is the Messiah (4:41). The disciples are slower to catch on, but at a climactic moment, a turning point in the Gospel, Peter identifies Jesus as the Christ (9:20), and Peter’s recognition represents the view of the disciples. The blind man at the conclusion of Jesus’ ministry hails Jesus twice as the “Son of David” (18:38, 39), and his confession signals his spiritual sight. Jesus does not outright identify himself as the Christ when examined by the religious leaders, but his answer shows that he believes himself to be the Messiah (22:66–71), and they crucify him on that basis (23:2). Unbeknownst to them they are fulfilling prophecy, showing their lack of spiritual perception. Luke emphasizes that the suffering and resurrection of Christ, his suffering and glory, were predicted in the Scriptures (24:26, 46).
Luke’s favorite designation for Jesus is “Son of Man,” using this title twenty-five times. Luke reaches back to Daniel 7:13–14, where “one like a son of man” approaches the Ancient of Days and a kingdom is given to the son of man. Scholars have often observed that the Son of Man sayings can be divided into three categories, which have to do with the (1) earthly, (2) suffering, and (3) future Son of Man. The common theme holding these three different kinds of sayings together is the authority of the Son of Man, for even in the suffering sayings we also find the promise of resurrection and triumph. This is another way of saying that the division into the three categories is rough around the edges and should not be pressed too far. The following verses focus on Jesus as the earthly Son of Man: Luke 5:24; 6:5; 7:34; 9:58; 19:10. The first of these (5:24) reveals the authority of Jesus as the earthly Son of Man, since he has authority to forgive sins, showing his divine authority. We also see his authority as the Son of Man, since he is “lord of the Sabbath” (6:5). Other sayings indicate that Jesus as the Son of Man lives in this world as one who eats and drinks (7:34) and seeks a place to sleep (9:58). His mission as the Son of Man is “to seek and to save the lost” (19:10).
The suffering Son of Man sayings are also common: 9:22, 44; 11:30; 18:31–33; 22:22, 48; 24:7. In particular, Jesus regularly informs his disciples about his suffering, death, and resurrection. The label “suffering,” of course, is not adequate since these sayings also include the resurrection! Daniel 7 does not clearly designate the suffering of the Son of Man, unless one sees such suffering in the suffering of the saints (Dan. 7:21, 25). Jesus likely merges the “son of man” of Daniel 7:13–14 with the suffering servant of Isaiah 52:13–53:12. The suffering of the Son of Man calls into question his authority, but the resurrection establishes and confirms it.
The future Son of Man sayings forecast Jesus’ glory, when his authority is evident to all. Thus the Son of Man is coming in glory and power and will be disclosed to the world (Luke 9:26; 12:40; 17:22, 24, 26, 30; 18:8; 21:27). He will be seated at God’s right hand (22:69) and will acknowledge before the Father those who belong to God (12:8; cf. 21:36).
Jesus is also acknowledged as Lord, which shows his deity as the second person of the Trinity. Elizabeth greets Mary as the “mother of my Lord” (1:43). And it seems that the Lord whose ways are prepared in the NT reception of OT texts is Jesus himself (1:76; 3:4). When we look at the Gospel as a whole, Peter’s words to Jesus take on a deeper meaning when he exclaims to Jesus, “I am a sinful man, O Lord” (5:8), particularly since the entire event (5:1–11) is like an OT theophany (cf. Isa. 6:1–7). In some instances it is unclear how we should understand the significance of the appellation “Lord,” but many and perhaps all of the following examples have a fuller meaning after the resurrection, indicating that people uttered a truth that was more profound than they knew: 5:12; 7:6; 10:17, 40; 11:1; 12:41; 13:23; 17:5, 37; 18:41; 19:8, 31, 34; 22:33, 38, 49. Jesus is the “lord of the Sabbath” (6:5) and will be addressed as “Lord, Lord” at the judgment day (6:46; cf. 13:25). Others address Jesus as Lord when they consider following him as disciples (9:59, 61). Luke as a narrator uses the word “Lord” to describe Jesus (7:13, 19; 10:1, 39, 41; 11:39; 12:42; 13:15; 17:6; 18:6; 22:61), and this probably cannot be restricted to “sir.” The framework for understanding the term Lord is informed by Jesus’ unpacking of Psalm 110, by which he clarifies that the Messiah is also David’s Lord (Luke 20:42–44), and by the glad acclamation that Jesus is Lord at the resurrection (24:3, 34).
The title “Son of God” occurs only six times, but the places at which the term is used are very significant and also confirm Jesus’ deity. At the outset of the Gospel Mary is told that her son will be the “Son of God” (1:35). Luke also shapes the genealogy so that Jesus’ stature as God’s Son is emphasized (3:38). The Devil (4:3, 9) and the demons (4:41) have more insight than human beings, addressing Jesus as the Son of God even though they do not love or worship him. Finally, when Jesus is examined by the religious leaders before his death, he identifies himself as the Son of God (22:70). We see other places at which the sonship of Jesus is featured. Gabriel tells Mary that Jesus “will be called the Son of the Most High” (1:32), and the Gerasene demoniac says that Jesus is “Son of the Most High God” (8:28). The divine voice acknowledges Jesus as “my beloved Son” at his baptism (3:22) and identifies him as “my Son, my Chosen one” at the transfiguration (9:35). Jesus is clearly in view as the “beloved son” in the parable of the vineyard and its tenants (20:13). Only the Father knows the Son, and in the same way only the Son knows the Father (10:22), so that the Father and the Son have a mutual and exclusive relationship with one another.
Holy Spirit
Luke refers to the Holy Spirit in the Gospel seventeen times, and when we consider Acts as well, in which the Spirit is mentioned fifty-six times, we recognize that the Spirit plays a major role in the book. The Spirit inspires prophecy, and thus the Baptist was filled with the Spirit inside Elizabeth’s womb (Luke 1:15), and Elizabeth and Zechariah spoke God’s word by the Spirit (1:41, 67). In a similar way, the Spirit revealed to Simeon that he would not die before seeing the Christ (2:25–27). The Spirit also descends on Mary so that she gives birth to the Christ apart from any sexual relationship (1:35). In the early chapters of Luke, the Spirit inspires those who testify about the coming of the Messiah, showing that the Spirit is the Spirit of the Son, the Spirit who calls attention to the Son.
The Baptist anticipates the ministry of Jesus, promising that Jesus will baptize his disciples with the Holy Spirit (3:16). Jesus was anointed with the Spirit for his ministry at his baptism (3:22), and as one “full of the Holy Spirit” he was directed by the Spirit to the wilderness, where he reenacted the experience of Israel in the wilderness (4:1). Jesus thus begins his ministry “in the power of the Spirit” (4:14) and anointed by the Spirit (4:18). We see again that the Spirit focuses on Jesus the Messiah, uniquely equipping him for his ministry.
We also see Jesus rejoicing in the Spirit (10:21), and he also warns about blasphemy against the Spirit (12:10). The Spirit who empowers Jesus will also be given to his disciples (11:13), instructing them in their hour of need (12:12). Acts continues the story: Jesus who bears the Spirit in Luke bestows the same Spirit in Acts.
Salvation
Jesus is designated as “Savior” (Luke 2:11), and a major theme of the book is salvation. He is designated as the “horn of salvation” (1:69). Jesus as the Spirit-anointed Messiah proclaims the good news of salvation to the poor, the captives, the blind, and the oppressed (4:18–19). We read in 19:10 that Jesus came “to seek and to save the lost.” The Gospel includes beautiful stories of God’s desire to save all people, and we think in Luke of the stories of the lost sheep (15:3–7), the lost coin (15:8–10), and the two lost sons (15:11–32). These stories feature the love of God that reaches out to all people. We see the same invitation for salvation in Jesus’ table fellowship with tax collectors and sinners (5:27–32; 7:29, 34; 15:1; 18:9–14; 19:1–10). One of the most remarkable accounts of God’s saving love in Jesus is the forgiveness of the sinful woman while Jesus was dining with Simon the Pharisee (7:36–50). Jesus brings forgiveness of sins to those who put their faith in him (5:17–26). Salvation is granted to people in “the forgiveness of their sins” (1:77). Justification belongs not to those who impress God with their moral virtue but to those who ask God for his mercy (18:9–14). As Jesus says to the sinful woman in 7:50, “Your faith has saved you; go in peace” (cf. 8:12, 48; 17:19; 18:42). No one is outside the reach of salvation; the criminal who repents and asks Jesus to remember him is at the last moment of his life promised paradise (23:40–43).
The third Gospel does not explicate fully the basis of salvation, but a careful reading of the Gospel shows that salvation can be traced to the cross and resurrection. Jesus’ crucified body and shed blood establish the new covenant (Jer. 31:31–34) and secure forgiveness (Luke 22:19–20). We have a subtle indication that Jesus bears the sins of his people in the citation of Isaiah 53:12 in Luke 22:37. The cup Jesus takes (22:42) signifies that he experiences God’s wrath for the sake of those who put their faith in him (cf. Ps. 75:8; Isa. 51:17, 22; Jer. 25:15–17). Luke emphasizes in chapter 23 that Jesus suffers as the innocent one and that his punishment is completely undeserved. The story of Barabbas does not necessarily mean that he becomes a believer, but it signifies that the innocent one dies in place of the guilty, signifying the basis of salvation (23:18–25). Still, salvation comes not from Jesus’ death alone but from his death and resurrection, for he grants life to his people as the risen one.
Discipleship
Those who are disciples of Jesus put their faith in him (5:20; 7:9, 50; 8:12, 13, 48, 50; 17:5–6, 19; 18:8; 22:32; 24:25) and turn from their sins (10:13; 11:32; 13:3, 5; 15:7, 10; 16:30). They acknowledge Jesus publicly as their Lord (12:8–9) and serve him faithfully (12:35–48; 19:11–27). They recognize that they are unworthy of salvation (18:9–14). Luke’s Gospel is marked by a journey motif in which Jesus travels from Galilee to Jerusalem, and he is on the road to Jerusalem to suffer and to die. So too, disciples are called upon to follow Jesus in the journey of life. Jesus’ words to the rich ruler represent what it means to be a disciple of Jesus (18:18–30). One must surrender all and follow Jesus to enter the kingdom of heaven. Following Jesus as a disciple is not easy, for Jesus does not promise a home for his followers (9:57–58), and one must be willing to leave one’s family, signifying that Jesus is preeminent in one’s life (9:59–62; 14:26). Only those who endure to the end will be saved (21:19), because true disciples keep believing until the end.
Disciples of Jesus are willing to die for Jesus’ sake (14:27); they have given up all claims to their own lives. They count the cost required for following Jesus (14:28–32) and are willing to give up all their possessions for his sake (14:33). The danger of riches often surfaces in Luke. Woes are pronounced on the rich and the comfortable, and blessings are given to the poor who depend upon the Lord (6:20–26; cf. 1:53). Some statements make it sound as if disciples surrender all their possessions (cf. 12:33), but we see from other texts that one must be willing to part with one’s money, and those who are wealthy are to give generously. The Good Samaritan does not part with all his money but uses it to help those who are in need (10:25–37; cf. 14:12). Women who support Jesus’ ministry financially do not become indigent but use their funds to help Jesus and his disciples (8:1–3). Zacchaeus does not give up all his wealth but makes right what he has done wrong and gives generously to the poor after he is saved (19:1–10). The rich man is condemned because he did not use his money to help Lazarus, even though Lazarus was suffering right outside of his home (16:19–31). Those who make riches instead of God their treasure reveal the true object of their worship and affection (12:15–21; cf. 8:14). Disciples seek not riches but the kingdom, trusting that their loving Father will provide all that they need (12:22–34). The poor widow functions as an example of a disciple who depends entirely upon the Lord (21:1–4).
The disciples of Jesus take up their cross and follow him daily, losing their lives for his sake (9:23–24). The desire to be great surfaces in all of us, but Jesus reminds his listeners that the soul of a true disciple welcomes a child in his name, those who are insignificant in the eyes of the world (9:46–48). Greatness is evidenced by serving others, not by exercising authority over them (22:24–27). Those who give themselves to Jesus humble themselves instead of exalting themselves (14:7–11). Disciples do not call down vengeance on their enemies (9:54–55). They love and pray for those who hate them, showing mercy and grace instead of giving into revenge and bitterness (6:27–36).
Good News for All Peoples
The Gospel also anticipates the Acts of the Apostles, in which the good news about Jesus goes to all nations. Simeon prophesies that Jesus will be a “light for revelation to the Gentiles” (2:32). The narrative about the Baptist picks up the words of Isaiah, promising that “all flesh shall see the salvation of God” (Luke 3:6). The first account of Jesus’ public ministry takes place in Nazareth, and thus the story is programmatic for both the Gospel of Luke and the Acts of the Apostles (Luke 4:16–30). The people begin by praising Jesus for his “gracious words” (4:22), but they turn against him, doubting that a person of his lineage could be God’s messenger. Jesus reminds them that Elisha was sent to a Gentile widow of Zarephath and that Elisha cleansed Naaman the Syrian of leprosy. Luke forecasts a pattern that becomes prominent in Acts: the Jews reject Jesus as God’s messenger and the Gentiles respond favorably, though this should not be read to say that Luke gives up on ethnic Israel. Along the same lines, the centurion, in contrast to many in Israel, stands out for his faith (7:1–10; cf. 11:31–32). When the kingdom is consummated, Jews who disbelieved and disobeyed will not share in the messianic feast, and others from every region on earth will enjoy God’s saving blessings (13:28–30). Perhaps the reference to those from the highways who are compelled to attend the great banquet includes Gentiles (14:23). Like Matthew, Luke ends with a commission to proclaim the name of the Messiah to all nations and all peoples (24:46–47). The inclusion of the Gentiles fulfills the universal promises given to Abraham (e.g., Gen. 12:3), realizing God’s plan and purpose for the world.
Relationship to the Rest of the Bible and to Christ
If we consider the storyline of the Scriptures, we see from the outset Adam and Eve created to rule the world for God, to extend the glory of God over the entire earth. The sin of Adam and Eve, however, deprives them of God’s glory (cf. Rom. 3:23), bringing sin and death into the world. The Lord promises, however, to bring salvation to the world through the offspring of the woman (Gen. 3:15). The promise of salvation, the coming of God’s kingdom, is to be conveyed through the covenants the Lord makes with his people. He makes covenant promises to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob (Gen. 12:1–3; 18:18–19; 22:17–18; 26:3–4; 28:14), promising them land (Canaan), offspring, and a blessing that will encompass the entire world. The Lord makes a covenant with Israel, which is to be a kingdom of priests mediating God’s blessing to the world (Ex. 19:5–6). Israel’s submission to the Lord is designed to show the entire world what it looks like for a people to live in God’s place under God’s rule. The promises made to Abraham will become a reality through the children of Abraham: the people of Israel. The nature of the promise is clarified further as Israel’s history progresses. The promises to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob will become a reality through a king, a descendant of David (2 Samuel 7; 1 Chronicles 17; Psalms 2; 89; 132).
The story of Israel, however, does not turn out as expected. Israel violates the stipulations of the covenant, and both the northern kingdom (722 BC) and the southern kingdom (586 BC) are exiled because of their sin. The Lord, however, does not abandon his people. He promises a new covenant (Isa. 32:15; 44:3; Jer. 31:31–34; Ezek. 36:25–27) by which the sins of the people will be forgiven and a new David will sit on the throne (e.g., Isa. 9:2–7; 11:1–10; 52:12–53:12; 55:3; Jer. 23:5–6; 30:9; 33:15–26; Ezek. 34:23–24; 37:24–25; Hos. 3:5; Amos 9:11). The Lord promises his people a new covenant, a new creation (Isa. 65:17; 66:22), a new exodus (Isa. 11:11–15; 40:3–11; 42:16; 43:2, 5–7, 16–19, 49:6–11; 51:10), and a new David.
The OT background helps us to understand the message of Luke, for Luke proclaims the fulfillment of these great promises, the realization of God’s plan for the world. The first two chapters of Luke, and in fact the entire Gospel, proclaim that the covenants God made with his people are fulfilled in Jesus. We should interpret the teaching on the kingdom along similar lines. Luke’s teaching on the kingdom should be interpreted as the fulfillment of God’s covenant promises to his people. We can put it another way: Jesus is the promised Davidic King, the Messiah promised in the OT. The kingdom, Luke teaches us, is becoming a reality because the King, Jesus the Messiah, has come. The prophecies enunciated in the OT are being fulfilled.
Those who are members of the kingdom are the saved, but the story unwinds in an astonishing way, as those who were expected to receive Jesus as King—the Jewish leaders and many of the people—reject him. Instead, it is the poor, the tax collectors, the women, and others at the bottom of the social ladder who respond to Jesus’ message. The kingdom promises come to pass in a most unexpected and shocking way. Not only that, but the King—Jesus—instantiates his kingdom in a way that subverts all expectations, for the covenant promises are actualized through his suffering, death, and resurrection. No one anticipated that the king would suffer; they were convinced he would triumph over his enemies and destroy them.
Luke teaches that a day of judgment is coming, but the kingdom comes first through the suffering-love of Jesus. He does not pulverize his enemies but gives his life for their sake. Evil is defeated not through force but through love. All who become disciples of Jesus are citizens of the kingdom, of the new community. They receive his saving promises if they give their lives to Jesus and live as his followers. Jesus emphasizes that the call to salvation is for all people everywhere: all who follow Jesus are beneficiaries of his new covenant sacrifice. Victory is achieved through his cross and resurrection.
Preaching from Luke
Perhaps the greatest challenge in preaching from Luke is the sheer length of the Gospel. Luke is the longest book in the NT, and we are not surprised to learn that Acts is the second longest. In some churches a slow series through Luke is fitting, but we need to remember as pastors that there are other books of the Bible to study, and thus there may be merit in covering more verses, more than one section, in preaching from Luke. If one wants to preach a longer series, there are advantages to breaking up the series and inserting a shorter series in the middle of the longer one so that the congregation does not feel that the series is too protracted.
It is also important in preaching in Luke to discern the timeframe in terms of salvation history. Certainly the Gospel is written for believers in Jesus Christ, and thus the message of Luke is intended to speak to believers after the resurrection. At the same time, the events in the Gospel mainly take place before the cross and resurrection, and thus one needs to take into account the whole plan of God in proclaiming Luke’s message. Luke himself affirms this very point in the book of Acts 20:27. Indeed, since Luke and Acts are two volumes, we are helped as preachers when we consider how a theme that commences in Luke is taken up further in Acts.
Interpretive Challenges
Luke poses a number of interpretive challenges. One of the thorniest problems in NT chronology surfaces in Luke because the Lukan account of the census does not seem to fit with what we learn from other sources about the time Quirinius ruled Syria (Luke 2:1–7). This matter will be taken up in the commentary, but it will suffice to say here that there is no simple or obvious solution to the problem. Such an admission does not lead to the conclusion that Luke is mistaken. The partiality of our historical records means there are many cases in which we acknowledge that we do not have enough data to solve historical questions.
Another difficulty arises when we compare the genealogies of Matthew 1:1–17 and Luke 3:23–38. They obviously diverge in significant ways, and Luke and Matthew have different purposes in their genealogies. A number of solutions have been proposed, which will be explored briefly in the commentary on that section of Luke. For those who believe in the inspiration, authority, and inerrancy of Scripture, we believe that a harmonization is possible. But saying that we can harmonize accounts does not mean we can be certain about the harmony proposed, and some accounts are more difficult than others. I will suggest in the commentary possible ways to harmonize the differences between the two genealogies. In other instances harmonizing Luke with Matthew and/or Mark seems difficult, and there is not space in this commentary to comment on every issue. But we will address in the commentary the differences in the story of the centurion in Matthew 8:5–13 and Luke 7:1–10.
Understanding some of Luke’s parables proves challenging. On first glance Jesus seems to compare God to a selfish man in a house who does not want to share with a needy neighbor (11:5–8). Similarly, the parable of the widow and the wicked judge could be interpreted to say that God is reluctant to hear our prayers but will respond when we beg him repeatedly (18:1–8). The parable of the unrighteous manager seems to land awkwardly since Jesus praises a man who is unrighteous (16:1–9).
Some of the parables and teaching of Jesus raise the question of whether he teaches that people are righteous by works. Some might derive such a lesson from the parable of the good Samaritan (10:25–37), the story of the rich man and Lazarus (16:19–31), Jesus’ words about inviting the poor to meals (14:13–14), and Jesus’ encounter with the rich ruler (18:19–22). The text on blaspheming the Holy Spirit also has troubled many in history (12:10). Similarly, it seems that Jesus commands believers to sell everything they own to be his disciples (12:33–34). The questions raised here will be answered in the commentary. It should be said here, however, that good works are necessary to enter the kingdom, but such good works are not the basis of eternal life but the fruit and evidence of new life in Christ.
Luke’s eschatological discourses are also controversial (Luke 17:22–37; 21:5–36). Some argue that what Jesus predicts in Luke 17; 21 is fulfilled entirely in AD 70, others that the discourses relate mainly to the future, and still others that Jesus was mistaken. I will not canvass all of the views here or in the commentary, but I will attempt to relay my understanding in the commentary.
Outline
I. Prologue: A Reliable Account of Salvation History (1:1–4)
II. Preparation for Jesus’ Ministry (1:5–4:13)
A. Two Births Predicted (1:5–56)
1. Birth of the Baptist (1:5–25)
2. Birth of the Christ (1:26–56)
a. Announcement of Birth by Gabriel (1:26–38)
b. Elizabeth Blesses Mary (1:39–45)
c. Mary Praises God (1:46–56)
B. Two Sons Born (1:57–2:52)
1. Birth of John (1:57–80)
a. John’s Naming (1:57–66)
b. Zechariah Praises God (1:67–80)
2. Birth of Jesus (2:1–52)
a. In Bethlehem (2:1–7)
b. Revelation of the Christ to the Shepherds (2:8–20)
c. Presentation and Revelation in the Temple (2:21–40)
d. The Son in His Father’s House (2:41–52)
C. The Baptist’s Ministry: Preparation for the Lord (3:1–20)
1. The Voice in the Wilderness (3:1–6)
2. The Fruits of Repentance (3:7–14)
3. The Coming One and John’s Imprisonment (3:15–20)
D. Jesus Endowed by the Spirit for Ministry (3:21–4:13)
1. The Baptism and Genealogy of Jesus (3:21–38)
2. The Temptation of Jesus (4:1–13)
III. Jesus Proclaims Salvation in Galilee by the Power of the Spirit (4:14–9:50)
A. Proclaiming the Good News in Galilee (4:14–5:16)
1. The Spirit-Anointed One (4:14–30)
2. A Message with Authority (4:31–44)
3. Call of Simon Peter (5:1–11)
4. Cleansing of Leper (5:12–16)
B. Conflict with the Pharisees (5:17–6:11)
1. Over Healing and Forgiveness of Paralytic (5:17–26)
2. Over Call and Association with Tax Collectors and Sinners (5:27–32)
3. Over Fasting (5:33–39)
4. Over Plucking Grain on the Sabbath (6:1–5)
5. Over Healing on the Sabbath (6:6–11)
C. Good News for the Poor (6:12–8:3)
1. Calling of Twelve (6:12–16)
2. Sermon on the Plain (6:17–49)
a. Introduction and Blessings and Woes (6:17–26)
b. Love Your Enemies (6:27–38)
c. True Sight (6:39–42)
d. Obedience (6:43–49)
3. Receptivity to Jesus’ Message by the Lowly (7:1–8:3)
a. Healing of Centurion’s Servant (7:1–10)
b. Raising a Widow’s Son (7:11–17)
c. The Role of the Baptist (7:18–35)
d. Forgiveness of Sinful Woman (7:36–50)
e. Financial Support from Women (8:1–3)
D. Revelation and Obedience (8:4–21)
1. Parable of the Four Kinds of Ground (8:4–15)
2. Parable of the Lamp (8:16–18)
3. Jesus’ Mother and Brothers (8:19–21)
E. The Revelation of Jesus’ Identity and Destiny (8:22–9:50)
1. Jesus’ Extraordinary Miracles (8:22–56)
a. Storm Rebuked (8:22–25)
b. Legion Expelled (8:26–39)
c. Raising the Dead and Healing the Sick (8:40–56)
2. Jesus’ Identity Disclosed (9:1–20)
a. Sending the Twelve (9:1–9)
b. Feeding the Five Thousand (9:10–17)
c. Confession of the Christ (9:18–20)
3. Jesus’ Destiny Revealed (9:21–50)
a. Prediction of Death/Resurrection and Summons to Disciples (9:21–27)
b. Jesus’ Transfiguration (9:28–36)
c. Faithless Generation and Uncomprehending Disciples (9:37–50)
IV. Galilee to Jerusalem: Discipleship (9:51–19:27)
A. The Journey Begins (9:51–13:21)
1. The Call of Disciples (9:51–10:24)
a. Samaritans Reject and Disciples Misunderstand (9:51–56)
b. Cost of Following Jesus (9:57–62)
c. Sending of Seventy-Two (10:1–24)
2. Living as a Disciple (10:25–11:13)
a. Parable of the Good Samaritan (10:25–37)
b. Mary Listens to the Lord’s Word (10:38–42)
c. Jesus Teaches on Prayer (11:1–13)
3. Controversy with Opponents (11:14–54)
a. Jesus Accused (11:14–26)
b. Blessing for Those Hearing and Doing God’s Word (11:27–28)
c. Wicked Demand for a Sign (11:29–32)
d. Parable of Light and Darkness (11:33–36)
e. Woes for Scribes and Pharisees (11:37–54)
4. Warnings for Disciples (12:1–34)
a. Warning against Hypocrisy (12:1–12)
b. Warning against Riches (12:13–34)
5. Crisis Hour (12:35–13:21)
a. Servants Ready for the Return of the Master (12:35–48)
b. Households Divided (12:49–53)
c. Discerning and Responding to the Signs of the Times (12:54–59)
d. Necessity of Repentance before the End (13:1–9)
e. Healing of Woman on the Sabbath (13:10–17)
f. Parables of Mustard Seed and Leaven (13:18–21)
B. The Journey Continues (13:22–17:10)
1. On the Way to Jerusalem (13:22–35)
a. Striving to Be Saved (13:22–30)
b. Jesus’ Destiny in Jerusalem (13:31–35)
2. Discipleship on the Journey (14:1–35)
a. Healing on the Sabbath (14:1–6)
b. Meals and Humility (14:7–14)
c. Parable of Great Banquet (14:15–24)
d. Counting the Cost (14:25–35)
3. Jesus Defends Welcoming Sinners (15:1–32)
a. Parables of Lost Sheep and Lost Coin (15:1–10)
b. Parable of Two Lost Sons (15:11–32)
4. Trusting God Rather Than Money (16:1–31)
a. Parable of the Unjust Manager (16:1–15)
b. The Law and the Kingdom (16:16–18)
c. Parable of the Rich Man and Lazarus (16:19–31)
5. Sayings on Discipleship (17:1–10)
C. The Last Leg of the Journey (17:11–19:27)
1. One Thankful Samaritan (17:11–19)
2. The Coming of the Kingdom (17:20–18:8)
a. The Kingdom and the Coming of the Son of Man (17:20–37)
b. Parable of Unjust Judge and Persevering Widow (18:1–8)
3. Entering the Kingdom (18:9–30)
a. Parable of Pharisee and Tax Collector (18:9–14)
b. Receiving the Kingdom Like a Child (18:15–17)
c. Encounter with Rich Ruler (18:18–30)
4. Prediction of Death and Resurrection (18:31–34)
5. Healing of Blind Man (18:35–43)
6. Jesus Saves Zacchaeus (19:1–10)
7. Parable of Ten Minas (19:11–27)
V. Death and Resurrection in Jerusalem (19:28–24:53)
A. Entrance into Jerusalem (19:28–48)
B. Controversy between Jesus and Leaders (20:1–21:4)
1. Jesus’ Authority and John the Baptist (20:1–8)
2. Parable of the Wicked Tenant Farmers (20:9–19)
3. Paying Taxes to Caesar (20:20–26)
4. The Sadducees and the Resurrection (20:27–38)
5. Jesus Confounds the Religious Leaders (20:39–44)
6. Pretense of Scribes and Authenticity of Widow (20:45–21:4)
C. Apocalyptic Discourse (21:5–38)
1. Prediction and Warning (21:5–19)
2. Jerusalem’s Siege and the Coming of the Son of Man (21:20–28)
3. The Parable of the Fig Tree and a Call for Vigilance (21:29–38)
D. Passover Events (22:1–38)
1. Betrayal by Judas (22:1–6)
2. Passover (22:7–23)
3. Dispute over Greatness and Promise of Rule (22:24–30)
4. Peter’s Denial and Restoration Foretold (22:31–34)
5. Preparation for Opposition (22:35–38)
E. Arrest and Trial (22:39–23:25)
1. The Arrest (22:39–65)
a. Pray Not to Enter Temptation (22:39–46)
b. Jesus Arrested (22:47–53)
c. Peter’s Denials (22:54–62)
d. Mocking by Soldiers (22:63–65)
2. The Trial (22:66–23:25)
a. Jesus Proclaims His Identity (22:66–71)
b. Pilate and Herod Find Him Innocent (23:1–12)
c. Pilate Swayed by the Crowd (23:13–25)
F. Crucifixion and Burial (23:26–56)
1. Crucifixion (23:26–49)
2. Burial (23:50–56)
G. Resurrection: Scripture Fulfilled (24:1–24:53)
1. Resurrection Announced to Women; Apostles Disbelieve (24:1–24:12)
2. Appearance to Cleopas and His Companion (24:13–35)
3. Commission of Disciples (24:36–53)